xm 


m 


THE, TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 
IN  JUNIOR  AND  SENIOR 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  ' 


BY 


ROLLA  MILTON  TRYON 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR   OF   THE   TEACHING    OF   HISTORY 
THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    CHICAGO 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  •  COLUMBUS  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,  BY  ROLLA  MILTON  TRYON 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


gfte  gtf>cngtttti  IPre« 

CINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  has  been  written  in  the  interest  of  better  history 
teaching.  It  deals  in  most  part  with  what  might  be  denomi- 
nated everyday  classroom  problems  in  the  teaching  of  history 
in  the  upper-elementary  and  high-school  grades,  both  junior 
and  senior.  The  technic  of  teaching  has  received  the  chief  em- 
phasis in  the  majority  of  the  chapters,  and  the  general  psycho- 
logical, pedagogical,  and  historical  phases  of  the  subject,  as 
well  as  the  unsettled  problem  of  what  to  teach,  have  been 
omitted.  The  idea  back  of  the  discussion  throughout  is  that 
there  is  a  technic  of  teaching  history  in  the  junior  and  senior 
high  schools  that  can  be  mastered  by  a  teacher  and  actually 
applied  in  directing  the  daily  classroom  activities,  regardless 
of  the  content  of  the  course. 

The  writer  fully  realizes  the  dangers  accompanying  a  dis- 
cussion which  attempts  to  be  so  practical  and  concrete  as  the 
one  contained  in  the  following  pages  purports  to  be.  When 
one  presents  a  history-recitation  score  card,  a  specific  pro- 
cedure for  supervised  study  in  history,  a  detailed  outline  of 
how  to  use  a  textbook,  a  definite  scheme  to  attain  progress 
within  the  subject,  directions  for  writing  a  term  paper,  concrete 
examples  of  the  problem-solving  method  in  history,  and  a  score 
or  more  of  similar  suggestions,  one  is  likely  to  be  met  with  the 
objection  that  the  specific  procedure  proposed  is  by  no  means 
the  best  or  the  only  one.  The  author's  rejoinder  to  such  an 
objection  is  that  in  no  case  has  he  done  more  than  present  a  way 
of  doing  a  specific  thing.  This  definiteness  in  all  probability 
will  be  more  helpful  to  some  teachers  than  to  others.  It  is 
highly  desirable  that  the  beginner  know  a  number  of  effective 


437753 


iv  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

ways  of  doing  a  multitude  of  things  connected  with  everyday 
procedure  in  history  teaching.  While  a  teacher  might  even- 
tually discover  through  experience  many  or  all  of  the  sug- 
gestions this  book  contains,  his  initial  success  will  be  more 
certainly  assured  if  he  knows  on  beginning  his  career  an 
effective  way  to  do  a  number  of  things. 

The  reader  will  observe  that  the  author  has  made  consider- 
able use,  mainly  for  illustrative  purposes,  of  the  work  of  others 
in  the  field.  Painstaking  care  has  been  exercised  throughout 
the  book  to  give  due  credit  for  all  material  used  in  this  manner. 
Some  utilization  has  also  been  made  of  the  writer's  material  re- 
cently published  in  the  Elementary  School  Journal,  the  School 
Review,  and  the  Historical  Outlook  (formerly  the  History 
Teacher's  Magazine) .  For  the  privilege  of  drawing  quite  freely 
on  this  material  he  wishes  to  express  to  the  editors  of  these 
periodicals  his  sincere  appreciation.  He  also  desires  to  express 
his  gratitude  to  Mr.  Howard  C.  Hill,  Head  of  the  Department 
t,  of  History  in  The  University  of  Chicago  High  School,  for  a 
k.  critical  reading  of  the  entire  manuscript  and  for  valuable 
suggestions  relative  to  the  content  and  organization  of  a 
number  of  chapters. 

^  ,  ROLL A  M.  TRYON 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

*  I.   The  History  Recitation i 

II,   Teaching  Pupils  to  study  History 31 

III.   Special    Methods    of    Procedure:    Lecture    and 

Textbook        48 

^  IV.   Special  Methods  of  Procedure  :  Topical,  Source, 

AND  Problem 69 

"  V.    Progress  within  the  Subject 94 

VI.   Written  Work  in  High-School  History  .     .     .     .  116 

VII.   The  Term  Paper  and  the  Permanent  Notebook  139 

VIII.    Measuring  the  Results  of  History  Teaching.    '.  154 

IX.   Library  and  Collateral-Reading  Problems     .     .  176 

X.   Teaching    Current    Events    in    Connection   with 

High-School  History 199 

•  XL   Planning  the  Course  and  the  Lesson      ....  214 

XII.   The  High-School  History  Teacher 246 

INDEX 285 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

IN  JUNIOR  AND  SENIOR  HIGH 

SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  HISTORY  RECITATION 

A  history  teacher's  success  is  largely  determined  by  what 
goes  on  from  day  to  day  in  the  recitation  period.  While  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  a  teacher  possess  certain  personal  and 
social  qualities,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  he  must  be  able  to 
show  considerable  skill  in  conducting  a  recitation  in  order  long 
to  maintain  his  existence  in  a  progressive  school  system.  Since 
this  fact  is  so  generally  accepted,  the  problem  for  the  actual 
or  would-be  history  teacher  becomes  one  of  mastering  a  recita- 
tion technic,  the  application  of  which  will  give  worth-while 
results.  However,  before  one  can  master  this  technic,  one 
must  objectify  it  and  analyze  it  into  its  component  parts  to  dis- 
cover the  contribution  of  each  of  these  parts  to  a  well-conducted 
recitation.  In  other  words,  one  must  see  that  certain  condi- 
tions are  requisite  to  a  good  recitation  in  history,  that  there 
are  definite  principles  to  apply,  standards  to  attain,  and  quaK 
ities  to  seek ;  that  there  are  also  certain  forms  or  types  of 
a  recitation  to  employ,  definite  things  to  do  in  making  an 
effective  assignment  of  a  history  lesson,  a  legitimate  amount 
of  time  due  the  pupils  in  most  recitations,  and  a  proper  num- 
ber and  a  desirable  kind  of  questions  to  ask.  It  is  to  a 
consideration  of  all  these  important  phases  of  the  history 
teacher's  daily  work  that  this  first  chapter  is  devoted. 


2\  c  i^:  c/.c;Tft^  T-EAqHlNG  OF  HISTORY 

Conditions  Necessary  to  a  Good  Recitation 
IN  History 

Before  a  history  teacher  can  expect  to  do  effective  teaching 
he  must  surround  himself  and  the  class  with  conditions  neces- 
sary to  a  good  recitation.  Generally  speaking,  these  conditions 
are  freedom  from  distraction  by  the  teacher,  the  pupils,  and 
|the  outside  world ;  interest  and  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  and  the  pupils ;  carefully  planned  work  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  and  carefully  prepared  work  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils ;  high  standards  of  attainment ;  a  spirit  of  cooperation 
and  sympathy ;  and  pupils  surrounded  with  suitable  material 
equipment.^  All  of  these  are  both  desirable  and  necessary.  The 
majority  of  them  are  also  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
teacher.  The  two  not  completely  under  his  control  are  distrac- 
tions from  the  outside  world  and  the  proper  environment  in 
the  matter  of  heat,  light,  and  a  room  of  suitable  size  and 
appropriately  supplied  with  desks,  tables,  chairs,  and  historical 
laboratory  equipment.  State  and  municipal  regulations  may 
aid  in  securing  the  first  of  these  exceptions,  but  if  a  history 
teacher  gets  what  is  absolutely  necessary  for  effective  work  in 
the  line  of  maps,  charts,  pictures,  diagrams,  models,  books,  and 
magazines,  he  will  often  need  to  use  all  the  persuasive  powers 
at  his  command  to  convince  superintendents  and  school  boards 
that  he  deserves  an  equipment  for  his  subject,  history,  equal 
to  that  which  is  almost  universally  supplied  for  physics,  chem- 
istry, manual  training,  and  domestic  science ;  and  that  to  do 
good  work  in  history  he  should  have  his  share  of  the  money 
which  is  too  often  lavishly  spent  in  equipping  laboratories, 
shops,  and  cooking  establishments  in  high  schools. 

While  a  teacher  does  not  have  full  control  of  the  distractions 
from  the  outside  world,  he  is  personally  responsible  for  those 
created  either  by  himself  or  by  a  member  of  the  class.  Here 
is  a  high-school  student's  actual  description  of  her  history 

1  G.  H.  Betts,  TA^  Recitation,  pp.  8i  fif. 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  3 

teachers  who  hindered  the  progress  of  their  recitations  by 
their  self-created  distractions  and  exasperating  annoyances: 

The  teacher  of  Greek  history  was  a  nervous  Httle  old  woman  who 
did  not  seem  to  know  what  she  was  going  to  do  next.  She  would 
bob  around  the  room  continually,  no  matter  whether  she  was  ex- 
plaining something  or  one  of  the  pupils  was  reciting.  This  seemed 
to  me  very  annoying  and  distracted  attention  from  the  work.  Be- 
sides this,  she  talked  extremely  fast  and  her  voice  did  not  carry 
well.  She  very  seldom  repeated  her  statements  or  questions  when 
asked  to,  but  more  often  gave  one  a  zero  for  inattention.  When  this 
happened  two  or  three  times,  it  usually  led  to  discouragement  and, 
on  the  part  of  several  including  myself,  to  stubbornness.  The 
Roman  history  teacher  was  quite  a  different  individual.  She  was 
a  fluffy  httle  middle-aged  woman  who  tried  to  act  like  a  girl 
of  sixteen.  She  had  many  new  and  fancy  clothes  which  caused  a 
great  deal  of  comment  among  the  girls  and  boys  of  her  classes. 
She  was  always  careful  to  strike  a  becoming  pose  when  sitting  or 
standing,  which  disgusted  the  girls  and  made  the  boys  snicker 
quite  often. 

While  these  are  in  all  probability  extreme  cases,  the  fact 
remains,  however,  that  the  teacher  is  occasionally  the  distrac- 
tion which  most  interferes  with  the  progress  of  the  recitation. 

Of  all  the  factors  essential  to  a  good  recitation  in  history 
none  are  more  important  than  interest  and  enthusiasm  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.  These  plus  a  charming  personality  are  the 
main  factors  so  far  as  the  teacher  is  concerned  in  causing  high- 
school  pupils  to  like  and  appreciate  history.  *^I  liked  and  ap- 
preciated history  in  the  high  school  because  of  a  wide-awake, 
interested,  and  enthusiastic  teacher'*  occurs  over  and  over 
again  in  the  answers  of  high-school  graduates  to  the  question, 
"  Why  did  you  like  history  in  the  high  school  ?  "  Typical  of 
many  of  these  answers  is  the  one  which  reads : 

The  reason  I  hked  history  in  high  school  was  because  the  teacher 
under  whom  I  started  was  unusually  good.  He  made  theAibject 
very  interesting  and  it  was  no  longer  a  forced  subject,  butSLloved 


iAibje' 
:||yov( 


4  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

to  study  it.  When  I  took  up  medieval  history,  my  teacher  was 
changed  and  my  interest  shifted  too.  This  teacher  was  not  as 
enthusiastic  as  the  former  and  failed  to  arouse  an  appreciation  for 
this  period  of  history;  consequently  it  was  of  very  little  interest  to 
me.  My  history  teacher  for  the  last  two  years  of  high  school  was 
a  lady  of  remarkable  personality  who  seemed  to  radiate  her  enthu- 
siasm for  the  subject.  She  strove  to  arouse  and  guide  our  appre- 
ciation and  to  elevate  and  train  our  taste,  as  well  as  to  impart 
knowledge  and  to  increase  skill.  The  interest  she  aroused  was  not  a 
means,  but  served  as  a  motive,  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and 
for  the  formation  of  right  habits  of  thought  and  action. 

Cyefully  planned  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  carefully 
prepared  work  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and  high  standards 
^^  ^ttainr"P"<^  are  also  prerequisites  to  a  good  recitation  in 
history.  A  teacher  who  has  labored  through  a  recitation  for 
which  neither  he  himself  nor  his  pupils  had  especially  pre- 
pared knows  how  painful  such  an  experience  really  is.  Exi- 
gencies of  time  occasionally  compel  all  parties  concerned  in  a 
recitation  to  approach  it  somewhat  unprepared.  Making  due 
allowance,  however,  for  all  such  occasions,  there  should  be  no 
escape  for  a  single  individual  from  a  painstaking  preparation 
of  the  material  on  which  each  history  recitation  is  to  be  based. 
A  good  rule  for  the  teacher  to  follow  in  this  matter  is  always 
to  be  sure  that  each  student  knows  in  advance  exactly  what  is 
required  of  him  and  subsequently  to  see  that  each  one  lives  up 
to  this  requirement  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  As  for  his  own 
preparation,  the  ideal  for  the  teacher  is  to  have  the  entire 
course  planned  in  considerable  detail  before  beginning  to 
teach  it.  Evidently  no  teacher  can  know  on  .beginning  a  course 
just  what  he  is  going  to  do  on  the  sixteenth  day  of  the  se- 
mester. To  be  prepared  in  detail  he  does  not  need  to  know 
this,  for  what  he  does  on  this  particular  day  will  be  determined 
by  what  he  did  on  the  fifteenth  and  the  fourteenth  or  possibly 
on  all  of  the  fifteen  preceding  days.  The  detail  that  he  does 
need  to  know  consists  of  the  general  organization  of  the  field 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  5 

of  history  to  be  taught,  the  dates-events  worth  remembering, 
the  personages  to  be  known,  and  the  maps  to  be  made.  He 
should  also  have  in  his  possession  a  teaching  outline  of  each 
main  division  of  the  field  with  the  best  available  references, 
maps,  charts,  pictures,  and  similar  supplementary  materials 
indicated  in  their  proper  places.  Painstaking  carefulness  in  the 
organization  and  preparation  of  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
will  invariably  pay  big  dividends  in  the  form  of  well-prepared 
work  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  because  the  teacher  will  be 
able  to  make  clear  from  day  to  day  just  what  is  required  and 
will  consequently  be  in  a  position  to  (demand  that  each  pupil 
live  up  to  the  requirements  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  All  of 
this  in  the  end  will  result  in  recitations  where  high  standards 
of  attainment  are  maintained.  Slackers  will  soon  discover  that 
to  come  to  a  recitation  unprepared  is  a  very  disagreeable  ex- 
perience, one  which  they  will  not  desire  to  undergo  repeatedly. 

Governing  Principles  and  Fundamental  Qualities 

If  a  history  teacher  wishes  to  become  an  artist  in  the  matter 
of  planning,  managing,  and  conducting  a  recitation,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  him  to  master  and  apply  the  old  and  familiar 
principles  of  unity,  proportion,  and  cohgrence.  In  all  probabil- 
ity the  application  of  these  principles  will  be  a  conscious  one 
on  the  part  of  beginners,  but  with  the  accumulation  of  success- 
ful teaching  experience  they  will  be  applied  with  ease  and 
facility  quite  unconsciously.  There  are,  of  course,  certain 
types  of  formal  work  such  as  drill  and  miscellaneous  reviews 
in  which  one  does  not  expect  to  apply  them.  Generally  speak- 
ing, however,  as  the  work  progresses  from  day  to  day  there 
will  be  few  meritorious  recitations  that  ignore  them  entirely. 

How  the  principles  of  unity,  proportion,  and  coherence  can 
be  applied  in  a  single  recitation  period  in  history  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  following  concrete  example.  The  assignment  for 
the  recitation  in  question  was  on  early  canals  and  railroads  in 


6  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  United  States.  The  three  main  topics  for  consideration 
were  the  Erie  Canal  in  New  York,  i8i 7-1825,  canal  construc- 
tion in  other  states,  and  the  first  American  railroads.  In  the 
recitation  based  on  this  assignment  unified  thinking  was  at- 
tained in  many  ways.  In  the  first  place  the  whole  discussion 
centered  on  ^arly  canals  and  railroads  in  the  United  States. 
Everything  said  and  done  throughout  the  period  related  di- 
rectly to  the  main  topic.  The  members  of  the  class  knew  at 
every  stage  of  the  recitation  what  phase  of  the  main  topic  was 
under  consideration.  Other  unifying  phases  of  this  same  recita- 
tion were  the  position  of  the  pupil  in  front  of  the  class  when 
making  a  recitatiSi  oFsome  length,  the  use  of  maps,  charts, 
sketches,  and  drawings  large  enough  for  the  entire  class  to  see, 
and  the  summary  at  the  close  of  the  period.  All  these  unify- 
ing devices  were  employed  with  excellent  results.  The^sunimary 
served  to  bring  together  the  main  features  of  the  discussion 
and  leave  the  class  with  a,  unified  body  of  material.  A  review 
at  the  beginning  o*f  the  period  was  instrumental  in  unifying  the 
work  of  the  previous  day  with  that  of  the  present. 

The  principle  of  proportion  was  applied  in  this  particular 
recitation  in  two  ways ;  namely,  giving  a  specific  amount  of 
time  to  each  phase  of  the  recitation  and  devoting  a  specific 
amount  of  the  time  allowed  for  the  new  material  to  each  of 
the  three  subtopics.  The  phases  of  the  recitation  were  as- 
signmentf  review^onsideration  qL  the  new  lesson,  and  the 
.aumiaafy*.  To  each  of  these  was  given  a  specific  amount  of  the 
entire  time  of  the  period,  thus  applying  the  principle  of  pro- 
portion. The  twenty-five  minutes  devoted  to  the  consideration 
of  the  new  material  was  distributed  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
out  what  one  of  the  three  subtopics  was  of  most  importance, 
what  one  next,  and  what  one  least.  The  class  was  conscious  of 
this  distribution,  and  when  the  summary  was  made  by  one  of 
the  members  the  three  subpoints  were  emphasized  in  about 
the  same  proportion  that  they  had  been  in  the  original 
discussion. 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  7 

Coherence  was  much  in  evidence  in  the  recitation  under  con- 
sideration. The  review  connected  the  p^st  material  with  the 
present.  Inasmuch  as  the  lesson  the  day  before  was  on  the 
general  subject  of  internal  improvements,  it  was  important  that 
the  relation  of  the  previous  work  to  the  present  be  shown.  The 
summary  also  served  to  tie  the  work  of  the  day  more  firmly  to 
that  of  previous  days,  thus  applying  the  important  principle  of 
coherence.  Individual  recitations  of  some  length  on  each  of 
the  three  subtopics  also  served  to  give  a  connected  view  of  the 
material  relating  thereto.^  Thus  it  will  be  seen  from  this  brief 
description  of  an  actual  recitation  in  history  that  the  principles 
of  unity,  proportion,  and  coherence  can  be  applied  in  teaching 
just  as  they  are  in  literature  and  art. 

Besides  controlling  principles  there  are  certain  fundamental 
qualities  of  a  teaching  exercise  that  it  is  well  for  a  history 
teacher  to  keep  in  mind  if  he  is  to  achieve  other  than  mediocre 
results.  These  are  clearness,  force,  and  fine  adaptation.  The 
boy  who  said  that  a  "furlough"  is  a  "mule"  is  a  splendid 
example  of  the.  need  of  clearness.  This  same  boy  attempted 
to  prove  that  he  was  right  by  citing  the  picture  of  a  soldier 
on  a  mule,  with  the  legend,  "Going  Homeon^ajjurloijgh." 
There  are  certain  unavoidable  defects  in  history'  texts  which 
make  it  imperative  for  the  teacher  to  keep  the  quality  of 
clearness  always  in  evidence  during  the  recitation.  Text- 
Sooks  m  history  by  necessity  are  made  up  largely  of 
g;^«6ralizations ;  they  also  contain  many  unfamiliar  words,  as 
well  as  words  expressing  ideas  differing  greatly  from  the  ideas 
commonly  associated  with  them.  The  history  teacher  must 
continuously  be  on  his  guard  for  all  such  pitfalls.  To  make 
the  abstract  generalizations  of  the  text  concrete,  he  must  use 
an  abundance  of  illustrative  material  in  the  form  of  supple- 
mentary reading,  pictures,  diagrams,  sketch  maps,  and  charts ; 
and  to  clear  up  any  misconceptions  which  are  likely  to  result 

1  The  recitation  described  above  was  taught  by  H.  C.  Hill,  of  The 
University  of  Chicago  High  School. 


8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

from  familiar  words  used  figuratively  or  expressing  ideas  not 
usually  associated  with  them,  he  will  need  to  give  such  words 
special  attention.  The  necessity  for  care  along  both  of  'these 
lines  will  be  brought  home  to  the  teacher  every  time  he  reads 
a  set  of  test  papers,  in  which  he  is  sure  to  find  words  used 
incorrectly,  facts  wrongly  applied,  and,  in  truth,  all  sorts  of 
historical  monstrosities.  To  minimize  the  misconceptions  he 
is  sure  to  find  on  testing  his  teaching  for  the  quality  of  clear- 
ness, the  history  teacher  must  plan  a  multitude  of  schemes  to 
determine  the  clarity  of  his  own  and  the  textbook's  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject  as  well  as  to  give  the  pupils  every  possible 
opportunity  to  express  in  their  own  words  what  they  have 
gleaned  on  any  given  subject  from  various  sources ;  for  it  is 
only  through  the  exercise  of  vigilant  care  and  intelligent  fore- 
sight that  the  history  teacher  can  feel  sure  that  his  presentation 
of  the  subject  contains  the  all-important  quality  of  clearness. 

The  quality  of  for££,is  a  spiritual  one  and  consequently  diffi- 
cult to  define  and  measure.  One  can  recognize  it  in  a  recitation 
when  one  sees  it,  but  just  how  to  attain  it  is  not  easy  to  tell. 
It  depends  very  largely  upon  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of 
the  teacher.  An  enthusiastic  and  interested  teacher  begets  in 
a  class  like  characteristics.  A  teacher  full  of  vivacity,  natural 
vigor,  and  life  will  fill  his  class  with  similar  desirable  qualities. 
Forceful  ystory  teaching  is  almost  sure  to  be  good  teaching, 
since  much  of  the  value  of  historical  instruction  lies  in  the  last- 
ing impressions  made  upon  the  students.  Recitations  continu- 
ously lacking  in  force  seldom  make  any  impressions  at  all  on  a 
class.  A  dead  history  recitation  is  certainly  not  to  be  tolerated. 
A  study  so  teeming  with  life  must  be  forcefully  taught.  By  con- 
scious striving  a  teacher  whose  recitations  are  lacking  the 
quality  of  force  may  in  time  acquire  considerable  skill  in 
injecting  this  desirable  quality  into  them. 

Fine  adaptation  is  a  prerequisite  to  the  qualities  of  clear- 
ness  and  force.  ^If  what  the  teacher  is  teaching  is  not 
adapted  to  the  age,  interest,  and  capacity  of  the  pupils,  it  will 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  9 

unfailingly  be  difficult  to  make  it  either  clear  or  forceful.  The 
great  problem  of  adapting  history  to  children  both  in  the 
elementary  and  in  the  secondary  schools  is  far  from  a  satis- 
factory solution.  As  the  situation  now  stands,  it  is  incumbent 
upon  the  individual  teacher  to  take  the  material  outlined  in 
the  course  of  study  or  in  the  textbook  and  to  adapt  it  to 
those  he  is  teaching.  He  can  be  materially  aided  in  this  matter 
if  both  syllabus  and  text  strive  to  select  and  discuss  only  the 
topics  and  movements  which  are  adaptable  to  the  pupils  for 
whom  they  are  intended.  Since  this  is  a  condition  still  to  be 
dreamed  of,  the  teacher  will  need  to  give  much  attention  to  the 
matter  of  adaptation  ;  and  since  adapting  history  to  high-school 
pupils  is  so  much  a  problem  of  method  of  presentation,  there 
is  much  necessity  for  a  careful  consideration  of  this  problem. 
What  is  meant  here  is  this  :  The  American  Revolution  is  taught 
on  both  the  junior  and  the  senior  high-school  level.  It  often 
happens  that  a  teacher  presents  this  subject  to  the  same  pupils 
on  each  of  these  levels.  In  all  such  cases  the  material  taught 
would  have  to  be  adapted  to  the  age  and  capacity  of  the  pupils 
largely  through  the  method  of  presentation.  Facts  relating 
to  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  the  Boston  Tea  Party,  England's 
commercial  policy  toward  the  colonies,  and  the  battles  of 
Bunker  Hill  and  Lexington  and  Concord  might  be  taught  on 
each  level,  but  if  the  same  devices  and  methods  of  presentation 
were  used  in  both  cases,  there  would  certainly  be  a  lack  of 
adaptation  on  one  of  the  levels.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  adapt- 
ing to  the  pupils  the  material  taught  in  any  given  recitation 
is  a  problem  of  supreme  importance  and  one  largely  left  for 
the  individual  teacher  to  solve. 

Controlling  Aims 

History  teachers  are  often  accused  of  doing  indefinite  teach- 
ing. This  criticism  has  resulted  in  wholesome  efforts  on  the 
part   of   some   teachers   to   make   their  work   more   definite. 


/ 


10  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

They  accomplish  this  by  setting  up  specific  objectives  for  a 
series  of  lessons  or  even  a  single  lesson.  If  a  teacher  sets  out  to 
teach  the  American  Revolution  with  a  very  explicit  aim  in 
mind  and  tests  his  results  strictly  according  to  it,  he  will  escape 
the  criticism  of  indefiniteness  so  common  and  so  just  nowadays. 

Besides  the  explicit  aim  that  the  teacher  may  have  in  mind 
in  teaching  the  American  Revolution  or  a  similar  topic,  there 
are  certain  specific  aims  common  to  all  recitations.  These  are 
no  other  than  the  common  ones  of  testing,  teaching,  and  drill .-V 
Whatever  else  he  does  with  the  assignment  made  the  day  before, 
the  history  teacher  must  unfailingly  test  the  pupils^jirgpaiation 
of  what  he  has  assigned  them ;  and  since  knowledge  of  history 
and  historical  movements  will  always  remain  one  of  the  legiti- 
mate goals  of  all  history  teaching,  he  will  need  to  test  the 
actual  knowledge  his  pupils  are  acquiring  as  they  proceed  along 
themslorical  way.  If  he  is  unacquainted  with  the  class,  he 
will  also  want  to  spend  much  time  in  testing  habits  of  study, 
since  it  is  only  by  this  means  that  he  will  be  able  to  locate  im- 
proper methods  and  to  supplant  them  with  proper  ones.  During 
the  time  of  the  recitation  given  over  to  such  testing  the  teacher 
should  secure  the  information  necessary  to  make  it  possible  for 
him  to  diagnose  the  cause  of  both  general  and  individual 
failures.  He  can  also  check  his  own  skill  in  applying  the  prin- 
ciples and  qualities  discussed  above.  Such  a  self-examination 
may  often  bring  disappointments,  but  will  in  the  end  work  for 
the  good  of  all  concerned. 

The  history  teacher's  real  skill  is  best  evidenced  by  his 
ability  to  do  what  in  reality  he  is  paid  to  do ;  namely,  teach. 
To  teach,  however,  does  not  necessarily  mean  to  do  all  the  re- 
citing. This  may  be  advisable  occasionally  but  not  often. 
Among  other  things,  high-scfeol  history  teaching  means  ( i )  giv- 
ing the  pupils  opportunities  to  express  themselves  concerning 
things  they  have  read ;  ( 2 )  correcting  wrong  impressions 
wherever  they  exist;  (3)  belong  pupils  to  master  and 
to  organize  related   historical   facts;    (4)    giving   additional 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  ii 

information  which  the  teacher  has  acquired  through  reading  and 
travel ;  ( 5 )  having  at  hand  at  the  opportune  time  illustrative 
materials  to  make  abstract  and  general  statements  concrete  and 
meaningful ;  (6)  developing  certain  principles  underlying  history 
study;  and  (7)  inspiring  pupils  to  better  efforts,  not  only  in 
history  but  in  all  phases  of  their  work  both  in  and  out  of  school. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  may  run  the  risk  of  being  dry 
and  formal,  the  history  teacher  should  spend  some  time  in 
actual  drill  work.  Before  this  can  15e  profitably  done,  however, 
he  must  have  definitely  in  mind  the  phases  of  the  work  which 
he  hopes  to  make  automatic.  Quite  often  too  much  i^  at- 
tempted along  this  line,  with  the  accompanying  result  of  mak- 
ing little  or  nothing  automatic.  There  are,  of  course,  certain 
dates  in  each  field  of  history  which  must  be  learne^i  for  all 
time,  personages  who  ought*  *to  be  known  very  intimately, 
maps  which  must  be  produced  from  memory,  large  historical 
movements  which  need  to  be  known  and  remembered  as  unified 
wholes.  Before  the  teacher  can  do  any  effective  drill  on  dates, 
personages,  maps,  and  the  story  of  large  rnovements,  he  must 
decide  with  definiteness  just  what  is  to  be  included  in  each  of 
these  lines.  In  other  words,  before  beginning  his  work  as  a 
teacher  of  American  history,  or  in  any  other  field  of  history  for 
that  matter,  the  history  teacher  ought  to  make  a  list  of  dates- 
events  to  identify  and  remginber,  of  personages  to  know,  of 
maps  to  make — and  he  ought  to  formulate  an  overview  or 
story  of  the  entire  field.  Having  done  these  things  he  will 
never  be  uncertain  about  the  drill  phases  of  the  work — a  very 
desirable  state  of  mind  in  which  to  be.  Of  course  the  teacher's 
method  of  teaching  facts  of  this  character  will  make  certain 
that  there  is  much  content  associated  with  them  before  any 
drill  upon  them.  A  good  wayto  think  of  such  material  is  to 
look  upon  it  as  forming  the  multiplication  tables  of  history, 
which  are  to  be  drilled  upon  and  known  quite  automatically 
just  as  the  tables  in  arithmetic  are.^ 

^  See  Chapter  XI  for  a  full  treatment'of  this  phase  of  the  teacher's  work. 


12  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Management 

The  ordinary  rules  of  scientific  management  are  undeniably 
as  germane  to  a  high-school  history  recitation  as  to  the  manage- 
ment of  a  farm,  a  factory,  a  shop,  a  store,  or  a  household. 
In  discussing  the  application  of  some  principles  of  scientific 
management  to  city-school  systems,  one  writer  mentions 
among  others  the  following  principle  as  especially  rele- 
vant to  the  management  of  city  schools:  "The  worker  must 
be  kept  supplied  with  detailed  instruction  as  to  the  work  to 
be  done,  the  standards  to  be  reached,  the  methods  to  be  em- 
ployed, and  the  appliances  to  be  used."^  If  one  substitutes  the 
word  "student"  for  the  word  "worker"  in  this  quotation,  one 
has  an  excellent  principle  of  guidance  for  the  high-school  his- 
tory teacher.  When  students  are  kept  supplied  with  specific 
instructions  as  to  the  work  to  be  done,  the  standards  to  be 
reached,  the  methods  to  be  employed,  and  the  materials  to  be 
used,  they  will  work  with  a  definiteness  hitherto  unknown. 
Recitation  standards  must  be  well  understood  by  all  concerned  ; 
the  general  method  of  procedure  must  be  no  secret  of  the 
teacher's ;  the  directions  for  preparing  the  work  for  the  daily 
recitation  must  be  so  explicit  that  no  one  can  fail  to  understand 
and  to  meet  them  ;  and,  finally,  the  maps,  charts,  reference  books, 
and  all  other  classroom  equipment  must  be  as  familiar  to  the 
pupils  as  to  the  teacher.  Few  will  question  the  validity  of  these 
statements.  Their  application  is  sure  to  result  in  tangible 
rewards. 

Besides  applying  the  foregoing  principle  of  ordinary  business 
procedure,  the  history  teacher  must  also  master  some  of  the 
technic  of  history-recitation  management.  What  is  meant 
by  this  is  that  he  will  have  to  learn  to  utilize  at  the  proper 
time  and  in  the  proper  place  all  the  resources  at  his  command. 
A  special  report  has  been  planned  to  make  concrete  some 

1  J.  F.  Bobbitt,  "  Some  General  Principles  of  Management  applied  to 
the  Problems  of  City-School  Systems,"  Twelfth  Year  Book  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education  y  Part  I,  p.  89. 

\ 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  13 

abstract  statement  of  the  text.  Able  manipulation  brings  this 
forth  at  the  opportune  time.  An  illustrative  source  extract  is 
to  be  read  when  a  certain  point  in  the  recitation  is  reached. 
Efficient  direction  sees  to  it  that  this  source  is  at  hand  and 
read.  An  appropriate  picture,  sketch,  chart,  or  what  not  is  to 
be  used  somewhere  in  the  lesson.  A  skillful  manager  will  have 
these  at  hand  and  use  them  at  the  appropriate  time  and  place. 
To  manage  a  history  recitation  scientifically  and  effectively  is 
not  the  work  of  a  neophyte.  Skill  in  it  comes  only  through 
much  experience  and  careful  attention  to  all  of  its  phases. 

Two  examples  of  good  management  have  recently  come  to 
the  writer's  attention.  One  of  these  divides  the  recitation  into 
four  parts,  as  follows :  review,  recitation  upon  assigned  work, 
summary,  and  the  advanced  assignment.  The  review  usually 
takes  five  or  ten  minutes  and  aims  to  do  two  things :  first,  to , 
emphasize  and  throw  new  light  on  facts  of  the  previous  lesson,( 
and,  secondly,  to  connect  past  and  present  material.  The 
recitation  proper  usually  takes  the  form,  of  questions  and 
answers,  narrative  account  of  certain  topics,  or  a  combination  of 
the  two,  in  which  case  the  teacher  calls  on  one  pupil  to  discuss 
fully  one  topic  in  the  lesson  outline.  When  this  pupil  has 
finished,  the  teacher  brings  out  by  questions  additional  points 
of  information  and  connection.  Into  this  part  of  the  recitation 
period  the  teacher  often  introduces  readings  by  himself  or  by 
pupils,  special  reports,  blackboard  work,  and  the  filling-in  of 
outline  maps.  The  summary  takes  the  form  of  an  oral  recitation 
by  one  or  more  pupils  or  of  an  outline  worked  out  by  the  class 
and  teacher  cooperatively,  the  main  points  being  written  on 
the  board  and  copied  in  the  pupils'  notebooks.  The  aim  of  the 
summary  is  to  emphasize  the  important  points  in  the  lesson 
of  the  day  and  at  the  same  time  to  show  the  relation  of  this 
lesson  to  previous  lessons.  The  advance  assignment  is  usually 
in  two  parts,  one  consisting  of  a  review  topic  and  the  other  of 
an  outline  mainly  based  on  the  text.  The  teacher  accompanies 
the  giving  out  of  the  outline  with  a  few  words  as  to  where  the 


14  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

references  may  be  found  and  what  they  contain,  as  well  as  an 
indication  of  the  points  of  difficulty  and  of  special  emphasis. 
The  summary  very  often  leads  up  to  and  introduces  the 
advanced  assignment.^ 

The  other  example  of  management  which  has  come  to  the 
writer's  attention  divides  the  period  into  the  following  six 
parts :  preliminary  qu^stions^  assignment  of  blackboard  work, 
quiz^  questions,  floor  talks,  explanation  of  blackboard  work,  and 
assignment  of  the  new  lesson.  The  time  ordinarily  devoted 
to  each  of  these  phases  of  the  recitation  in  the  order  named  is 
five,  two,  eight,  fifteen,  ten,  and  five  minutes.  The  object  of 
the  preliminary  questions  is  to  focus  the  thoughts  of  the  pupils 
at  once  on  the  lesson.  Such  questions  as  What  impressed  you 
most  in  the  lesson?  What  was  most  significant?  Anything 
you  particularly  enjoyed?  are  typical  of  the  kind  of  prelimi- 
nary questions  asked.  The  assignment  of  the  blackboard  work 
follows  the  preliminary  questions.  Ten  or  twelve  pupils  are 
asked  to  place  on  the  board  (from  memory)  maps,  graphs,  out- 
lines, diagrams,  and  lists  of  names  which  have  been  assigned  the 
previous  day.  While  these  ten  or  twelve  pupils  are  at  the  board 
the  attention  of  the  remainder  of  the  class  is  occupied  with  quiz 
questions  asked  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Sometimes  one  pupil 
is  selected  to  answer  all  questions  propounded,  his  place  being 
taken  by  a  volunteer  if  he  fails  quickly.  At  other  times 
the  class  is  divided  into  two  sections,  one  section  quizzing  the 
other.  In  fact,  all  sorts  of  devices  are  employed  to  secure 
variety  and  to  sustain  interest.  When  all  or  nearly  all  of  the 
pupils  at  the  board  have  finished  their  work,  the  class  gives  its 
attention  to  a  single  speaker  in  what  is  called  a  jioor  talk.  In 
this  talk  the  pupil  faces  the  audience  and  speaks  without  notes, 
the  aim  being  to  set  forth  in  a  straightforward,  concise  manner 
his  knowledge  of  the  subject  under  consideration.  After  he  has 
finished,  the  teacher  calls  for  criticisms  and  makes  them  him- 
self, both  adverse  and  favorable.    Before  closing  the  recitation 

1  Used  by  A.  F.  Barnard,  of  The  University  of  Chicago  High  School. 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  15 

the  teacher  gives  the  pupils  who  were  sent  to  the  blackboard  at 
the  beginning  of  the  hour  an  opportunity  to  explain  what  they 
have  done.  Just  enough  attention  is  given  to  this  phase  of  the 
work  to  make  those  doing  it  feel  that  their  work  has  been  ob- 
served and  checked.  The  last  five  minutes  of  the  period  are 
devoted  to  the  assignment  of  the  new  lesson.  This  seems  to 
be  enough  time  because  the  work  is  planned  with  such  care. 
To  guide  him  each  student  is  presented  with  a  card  containing 
the  study  plan  for  the  history  lesson.^ 

Whether  or  not  one  agrees  in  toto  with  the  two  foregoing 
programs  of  history-recitation  management,  one  must  accept  as 
feasible  the  idea  back  of  them.  Of  course,  not  every  day's  work 
of  necessity  falls  into  the  four  divisions  mentioned  in  the  first 
example  or  the  six  mentioned  in  the  second ;  this  would  grow 
monotonous.  Nevertheless  pupils  enjoy  doing  the  same  kind 
of  work  for  several  days  in  succession.  They  learn  what  is  ex- 
pected of  them  and  enjoy  living  up  to  these  expectations. 

Of  the  constant  elements  in  good  recitation  management,  the 
assignment  of  the  new  lesson  is  of  supreme  importance,  for 
"upon  it  and  its  accomplishment  rests  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  entire  -recitation  period.  It  is  certainly  not  putting  the  case 
too  strongly  to  say  that  one  of  the  most  important  things  done 
by  a  teacher  in  any  given  history  recitation  is  the  assignment 
of  the  work  upon  which  the  next  one  is  to  be  based.  Just 
when  and  how  an  assignment  should  be  made  and  the  amount 
of  time  that  should  be  devoted  to  it  are  matters  that  the  teacher 
must  settle  for  himself.  It  is  in  all  probability  safe  to  assume 
that  few  history  teachers  spend  too  much  time  in  assigning  the 
lesson;  and  that  fewer  still  make  the  assignment  too  definite, 
especially  for  immature  pupils. 

Considerable  time  and  a  rich  store  of  schemes  are  required 
to  make  all  history  assignments  sufficiently  specific,  clearly 

^  For  a  full  description  of  this  plan  by  its  originator  see  "  A  Lesson  in 
History,"  Ohio  History  Teacher's  Journal  (November,  191 6),  pp.  no  ff. 
The  card  is  reproduced  on  page  39  of  the  following  chapter. 


1 6  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

comprehensive,  and  adequately  appealing.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  specific  things  which  a  history  teacher  might  do  in  assign- 
ing a  lesson  (the  explicit  thing  will,  of  course,  always  be  deter- 
mined by  the  ability  and  advancement  of  the  class):  (i)  call 
attention  to  the  most  important  points  in  the  advanced  lesson ; 
(2)  outline  the  lesson  for  the  pupils ;  (3)  explain  difficult  parts 
of  the  new  lesson;  (4)  give  a  list  of  leading  questions;  (5)  show 
pupils  how  to  make  their  own  outlines;  (6)  suggest  definite 
references,  pictures,  and  maps  for  study ;  ( 7 )  develop  the  out- 
line of  the  advanced  lesson  with  the  aid  of  the  class  ;  (8)  place 
the  difficult  words  on  the  blackboard  and  pronounce  them ; 
(9)  read  the  advanced  lesson  over  with  the  pupils,  noting  the 
large  topics  and  asking  them  to  prepare  the  new  lesson  ac- 
cording to  the  outline  thus  made;  (10)  simply  outline  enough 
of  the  lesson  to  show  the  pupils  how  to  study  it,  and  leave  the 
remainder  for  them  to  do ;  (11)  assign  by  topics  with  little 
discussion  or  explanation ;  and  (12)  give  a  list  of  topics  with 
general  references  and  citations  to  special  references,  indicating 
at  the  same  time  the  relative  importance  of  the  topics.!/  It  is 
often  desirable  with  beginners  in  high-school  history  to  read 
the  lesson  over  with  them  one  day  and  ask  them  to  recite  upon 
it  the  following  day.  Good  general  rules  to  follow  in  making 
the  assignment  are:  set  definite  tasks  to  be  performed;  give 
specific  instructions  as  to  what  to  learn  as  well  as  to  where  to 
find  material  and  how  to  master  it ;  and  never  feel  that  the 
assignment  is  effectively  made  until  each  pupil  clearly  under- 
stands just  what  work  is  to  be  done  in  preparation  for  the 
succeeding  period. 

Forms  or  Types 

Junior  and  senior  high-school  history  recitations  may  legiti- 
mately assume  a  number  of  forms  or  types,  the  chief  ones 
being  ( i )  a  combination  of  the  recitation  and  the  lecture 
method  with  the  emphasis  on  reciting  by  the  pupils ;  ( 2 )  a 
combination  of  the  recitation  and  lecture  method  with  the 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  17 

emphasis  on  the  part  taken  by  the  teacher;  (3)  the  topical 
recitation;  (4)  the  study  recitation;  (5)  the  textbook  recita- 
tion; (6)  the  review  and  drill  recitation;  (7)  the  test  recita- 
tion; (8)  the  individual  recitation;  and  (9)  the  socialized 
recitation.  If  a  teacher  desires  to  develop  a  subject  inductively, 
he  will  make  much  use  of  the  first  mentioned  of  these  forms. 
He  will  question  the  class  sharply  on  the  assigned  material 
which  relates  to  the  subject  under  consideration.  When  neces- 
sary he  will  amplify  with  extra  material  in  the  form  of  a  brief 
lecture  or  explanation,  such  work  on  his  own  part  being  con- 
necting links  in  the  development  of  the  lesson.  There  will  be 
no  digression  or  lack  of  continuity  in  the  work.  The  line  of 
cause  and  effect  will  hold  things  together.  Coherence  will  be 
much  in  evidence. 

When  the  teacher  desires  to  cover  a  subject  not  fully  treated 
in  the  textbook  he  may  use  a  combination  of  the  recitation  and 
the  lecture  method,  placing  the  emphasis  on  the  latter.  In  using 
this  form  of  recitation  the  textbook  material  will  not  receive 
much  attention.  The  teacher  will  do  most  of  the  talking, 
making  a  liberal  use  of  illustrative  material  to  render  his 
presentation  clear  and  concrete.  Questions  will  be  asked  now 
and  then  to  make  sure  that  the  pupils  are  following.  When 
this  form  is  used  day  after  day  and  for  all  kinds  of  work  it 
becomes  the  lecture  method  pure  and  simple. 

The  topical  and  the  textbook  recitation  may  at  times  be 
identical.  For  example,  if  the  work  on  the  French  and  Indian 
Wars  is  taken  up  in  the  recitation  period  topic  by  topic  as 
presented  in  the  text,  there  would  be  no  distinction  in  the  two 
forms.  The  recitation  in  this  case  would  be  carried  on  by  a 
mere  announcement  of  the  topic  by  the  teacher  and  a  presenta- 
tion of  what  the  text  contains  by  some  pupil.  This  procedure 
would  continue  until  all  the  topics  the  text  contains  on  the 
subject  were  covered.  While  the  two  forms  are  identical  when 
thought  of  in  this  connection  there  is,  however,  a  use  of  each 
where  this  identity  is  not  present.    In  using  what  is  known  as 


1 8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  topical  method  in  teaching  history  some  teachers  assign 
each  member  of  the  class  a  topic  The  recitation  takes  the 
form  of  special  reports  on  these  assigned  topics,  one  topical 
report  after  another  being  given.  Another  use  of  this  form  of 
recitation  is  when  the  teacher  outlines  somewhat  independently 
of  the  text  the  work  on  the  tariff,  slavery,  or  like  topics.  The 
recitation  in  this  case  is  carried  on  by  the  members  of  the  class 
discussing  each  topic  in  the  assignment  when  it  is  announced 
by  the  teacher.  Each  member  of  the  group  will  know  some- 
thing about  each  topic.  This  fact  makes  the  topical  recitation 
in  this  form  better  adapted  to  high-school  pupils  than  in- 
dividually assigned  topics. 

The  textbook  recitation  may  take  the  form  of  pure  rote, 
work.  Originally  it  was  chiefly  this,  the  words  of  the  author 
being  repeated  verbatim  by  the  student  when  reciting.  It  may^^ 
also  take  the  other  extreme,  namely,  reciting  with  the  text  open 
where  little  is  required  either  of  the  teacher  or  of  the  pupils. 
When  used  in  either  of  these  two  ways  the  textbook  recitation 
has  little  in  its  favor.  If,  however,  the  substance  rather  than 
the  exact  words  of  the  author,  is  mastered  by  the  pupils  and 
^  reported  during  the  recitation,  and  if  the  open  book  is  used  for 
-X.  reference  and  to  teach  how  to  study,  this  form  of  the  history 
recitation  becomes  one  which  no  teacher  would  care  to  neglect 
entirely. 

The  study  recitation  is  much  like  a  laboratory  exercise.  In 
L  it  the  pupilTwork  with  books  open,  write  reports,  draw  pictures, 
make  maps  and  charts,  read  references,  and  do  other  things 
characteristic  of  the  laboratory  method.  The  recent  supervised- 
study  movement  has  done  much  to  bring  this  form  of  reci- 
tation to  the  foreground.  When  regular  supervised-study 
periods  are  not  provided,  the  teacher  can  profitably  use  some 
of  the  recitation  time  to  teach  the  fundamentals  of  study 
and  their  application  to  history. 

The  review  and  drill  recitation  and  the  test  recitation  may  be 
disposed  of  in  one  paragraph.   While  it  may  be  desirably  and 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  19 

necessary  to  do  a  little  reviewing,  drilling,  and  testing  in  each 
recitation  there  are  times  when  one  can  legitimately  devote  an 
entire  period  to  any  one  of  these  types  of  work.  Care  should  be 
taken,  however,  in  the  matter  of  testing,  lest  the  teacher  fall 
into  the  habit  of  doing  that  and  nothing  more.  When  a  teacher 
merely  reconstructs  bit  by  bit  the  story  the  text  gives,  leaves 
the  information  in  a  piecemeal  form,  asks  a  superabundance  of 
memory  questions,  and  gives  no  additional  information,  he  does 
not  rise  above  the  level  of  a  mere  tester  of  assigned  work, 
something  the  parent  could  in  all  probability  do  as  well.  If  a 
teacher  has  assigned  a  certain  amount  of  work  to  the  whole 
class,  he  may  occasionally  need  an  entire  period  to  test  it 
thoroughly.  There  will  also  be  times  when  he  will  need  to  spend 
one  or  more  periods  in  review  and  in  drill.  The  only  thing 
that  seems  to  need  emphasizing  in  connection  with  these  ac- 
tivities is  that  each  is  essential  to  good  teaching  and  deserves 
the  best  thought  of  the  teacher  in  preparing  to  conduct  recita- 
tions in  which  either  of  them  plays  the  chief  role.^ 

The  individual  recitation  is  what  the  name  suggests.  It 
demands  a  large  expenditure  of  the  time  and  energy  of  the 
teacher.  It  can  be  used  most  effectively  to  test  uniform 
requirements.  For  example,  in  teaching  the  Crusades,  the 
Reformation,  the  French  Revolution,  the  American  Revolution, 
the  Civil  War,  and  similar  topics,  it  can  be  understood  in  the 
beginning  that  each  member  of  the  class  will  be  required  to 
formulate  in  his  own  words  a  connected  discussion  of  the  sub- 
ject in  question  and  to  recite  it  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
instructor.  On  completing,  for  example,  the  study  of  the 
Civil  War,  the  teacher  could  tell  the  story  to  the  class  or 
develop  it  as  a  class  exercise.  Individual  recitation  would 
then  become  the  order  of  the  day  for  a  number  of  periods, 
the  class  as  a  whole  being  set  to  work  on  some  advanced 

^  For  two  discussions  of  the  forms  of  the  history  recitation  see  Walter 
Libby,  «  Forms  of  High-School  Recitation,"  Education,  XXVIII,  601  ff., 
and  Frances  Morehouse,  "  Forms  of  the  History  Recitation,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VII,  337. 


+ 


20  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

problem.  While  this  form  of  the  history  recitation  can 
easily  become  a  testing  exercise  and  nothing  more,  it  need 
not  necessarily  remain  on  this  level. 

The  socialized  recitation  is  one  in  which  the  outward  re- 
sponsibility for  conducting  and  managing  the  recitation  activi- 
ties rests  with  the  class,  and  not  with  the  teacher  as  in  the  case 
with  the  majority  of  the  forms  described  above.  In  a  strictly 
socialized  recitation  conversations  and  discussions  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  class  circle,  the  teacher  being  a  unit  as  each  pupil 
is.  Discussions,  questions,  and  criticisms  are  between  pupils, 
with  the  teacher  occasionally  drawn  in,  rather  than  always  be- 
tween the  teacher  and  some  member  of  the  class.  The  direction 
of  expression  is  also  wholly  in  charge  of  the  pupils,  thus  forc- 
ing them  to  project  a  sequence  of  topics  around  which  their 
own  contributions  are  to  center. 

A  description  of  the  procedure  in  teaching  the  tariff  by  means 
of  the  socialized  recitation  would  run  as  follows :  Let  the  class 
turn  itself  into  a  legislative  body.  For  practical  purposes  it 
could  represent  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  com- 
bined. Each  member  under  this  arrangement  would  be  as- 
signed a  certain  number  of  states  to  represent  and  have  as 
many  votes  as  the  states  he  represents.  After  these  prelim- 
inaries are  out  of  the  way  and  the  proper  officers  have  been 
chosen,  a  ways  and  means  committee  can  be  appointed.  Before 
this  committee  can  do  any  definite  work  the  class  should  make 
a  limited  list  of  the  items  to  appear  in  the  tariff  bill  which  is  to 
result  from  this  work.  Forty  or  fifty  items  will  be  all  a  class 
can  manage  successfully.  To  aid  in  the  selection  of  these  items 
a  copy  of  the  tariff  schedule  in  force  at  the  date  of  the  contem- 
plated bill  should  be  at  hand.  Each  member  of  the  class 
should  be  provided  with  a  list  of  the  proposed  items  as  well 
as  the  duty  on  them  in  the  law  once  in  force.  While  the 
ways  and  means  committee  is  working  on  a  bill  to  present,  the 
other  members  of  the  group  can  be  thoroughly  acquainting 
themselves  with  the  industrial  life  and  interests  of  the'^ates 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  21 

they  represent.  While  doing  this  each  one  can  tentatively  make 
out  a  schedule  on  each  item  in  the  proposed  list  which  he  thinks 
the  states  in  his  group  would  have  actually  favored  at  the 
time  of  the  proposed  bill.  In  due  time  the  ways  and 
means  committee  will  be  ready  to  report;  a  copy  of  the 
report  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  member 
of  the  class.  In  presenting  this  report  as  many  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  committee  as  care  to  do  so  should  be  permitted  to 
speak,  after  which  speeches  will  be  in  order  from  all  those  not 
members  of  the  committee.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  it  understood 
in  the  beginning  that  each  member  of  the  group  is  to  make  a 
speech  in  which  the  interests  of  his  group  of  states  will  be 
presented.  At  the  proper  time  the  vote  can  be  taken.  If  at 
all  possible  the  bill  should  be  passed.  This  will  require  some 
caucusing,  no  doubt,  and  it  may  also  require  some  changes  in 
the  original  bill.  In  spite  of  these  extra  labors,  however,  the  bill 
in  some  form  should  be  passed,  even  if  it  is  a  tariff  of 
"  abominations,"  as  some  have  been  in  the  history  of  our  country. 
It  should  be  said  in  concluding  this  section  that  the  fjjrm 
each  recitation  or  a  series  of  recitations  is  to  take  should  ve  a 
matter  of  considerable  concern  to  the  teacher,  since  it  often  de- 
termines in  advance  such  problems  as  teacher-pupil  activity, 
the  number  and  kind  of  questions,  the  quantity  and  use  to  be 
made  of  supplementary  material,  the  ways  of  securing  unity, 
proportion,  and  coherence,  and  the  operation  of  the  factors  in 
good  recitation  management.  For  example,  if  the  teacher  de- 
liberately plans  to  consume  most  of  the  time  himself,  he  will  use 
a  combination  of  the  redtation  and.oral  form  with  the  emphasis 
on  the  latter ;  on  the  other  hand,  ifhe  plans  to  have  the  pupils 
consume  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  time,  he  will  use  either  the 
individual  or  the  socialized  recitation.  In  other  words,  the  thing 
to  be  done  will  determine  the  form  of  the  recitation,  which  in 
turn  will  dictate  the  method  of  procedure  to  be  used  in  ac- 
complishing the  end  sought.  A  practical  thing  for  the  teacher 
to  do  is  to  specialize  on  two  or  three  forms  and  then  use  the 


22  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

others  to  accomplish  special  kinds  of  projects.  To  this  latter 
service  the  individual,  the  study,  the  test  recitations,  and  the 
combination  of  the  recitation  and  the  oral  method  with  the 
emphasis  on  the  oral  are  well  adapted  ;  for  regular  day-by-day 
use  the  socialized  form  and  a  combination  of  the  recitation  and 
oral  method  with  the  emphasis  on  the  recitation  can  be  em- 
ployed with  worth-while  results. 

The  History  Question 

There  are  three  things  connected  with  the  question  as  a 
means  of  attaining  efficiency  in  high-school  history  instruction 
to  which  the  teacher  should  continuously  give  his  attention. 
These  are  the  quality,  the  number,  and  the  kind  of  questions 
he  is  daily  using.  Certain  essential  qualities  of  good  history 
questions  should  always  be  uppermost  when  a  teacher  is  formu- 
lating them.  If  a  history  question  stimulates  reflection,  is 
adapted  to  the  pupils'  experience,  and  calls  forth  a  well-rounded 
thought  clearly  and  logically  expressed,  it  has  some  elements  of 
superior  quality.  In  order  to  make  sure  that  his  questions  will 
contain  these  desirable  characteristics,  a  history  teacher  should 
embody  in  his  plan  for  the  day  six  or  eight  thought-provoking"^ 
questions,  calling  for  discrimination  and  association,  based  on 
facts  found  in  the  lesson. 

Just  how  many  questions  one  should  ask  during  a  forty\or 
forty-five  minute  history  recitation  is  a  matter  which  defies  an 
arbitrary  answer.  As  hinted  above,  the  form  of  the  recitation 
is  one  of  the  chief  determining  factors  here.  An  inductive  type 
will  certainly  demand  many  more  questions  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  than  the  socialized.  Judging  from  the  investigations 
that  have  been  made  of  the  questioning  activity  of  history 
teachers,  it  seems  safe  to  say  that  most  of  them  either  are  asking 
too  many  questions  or  are  using  one  form  of  the  history  recita- 
tion to  excess.  For  example,  one  investigator,  in  gathering 
material  for  a  study  of  the  question,  visited  some  twenty 
history  recitations  and  actually  counted  the  questiongr^sked 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION 


23 


during  a  forty  minute  period.  It  was  found  that  the  number 
of  questions  propounded  by  the  teacher  varied  from  41  to  142, 
the  actual  figures  for  the  twenty  periods  being  41,  47,  53,  60, 
61,  61,  64,  66,  68,  76,  80,  88,  90,  90,  93,  94,  97,  125,  128, 
142.^  Another  study  of  a  similar  nature  which  investigated 
ten  recitations  of  each  of  two  history  teachers  found  the  facts 
exhibited  in  Table  I. 


TABLE  I. 


THE  QUESTIONING  ACTIVITY  OF  TWO  HIGH- 
SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHERS  2      • 


First  Teacher 

Second  Teacher 

Questions 

Minutes 

Questions 

Minutes 

93 

in 

25 

88 

in 

26 

54 

in 

32 

142 

in 

44 

95 

in 

23 

116 

in     V 

35 

120 

in 

25 

100 

in 

26 

52 

in 

17 

75 

in 

32 

139 

m 

27 

79 

in 

30 

no 

m 

45 

119 

in 

34 

70 

in 

30 

117 

in 

28 

36 

in 

20 

97 

in 

24 

145 

m 

40 

65 

in 

26 

914 

in 

284 

998 

in 

305 

Average 

per 

minute,  3. 

22 

Average  per 

minute,  3. 

20 

Few  teachers  will  dissent  from  the  opinion  that  in  the  major- 
ity of  the  twenty  history  recitations  represented  in  Table  I  too 
many  questions  were  asked,  unless  one  grants  that  almost  all  of 
them  were  of  a  type  demanding  many  questions.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  the  practical  thing  for  the  history  teacher  to  do  in  facing 
these  startling  findings  is  rigidly  to  guard  his  own  questioning 
activity  and  see  that  the  number  of  questions  he  asks  has  some 
direct  relation  to  the  form  of  the  history  recitation  he  is  using. 

1  Romiett  Stevens,  Tlie  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in  Instruc- 
tion^ p.  II. 

2  E.  E.  Lewis,  "The  Questioning  Activity  of  High-School  Teachers," 
Midland  Schools  (February,  191 6),  p.  173. 


24 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


If  attention  is  directed  to  the  kind  of  questions  asked  by  the 
history  teachers  represented  in  Table  I,  one  learns  why  they 
asked  so  many.  In  eleven  history  recitations  visited  by  two 
investigators^  the  following  facts  were  revealed: 


Number  of  the  recitation 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Total  number  of  questions 

41 

66 

90 

94 

125 

142 

85 

82 

82 

68 

87 

Number  of  memory  questions 

29 

60 

75 

74 

87 

103 

85 

70 

50 

60 

72 

The  fact  that  one  of  these  investigators  found  that  the  num- 
ber of  memory  questions  was  considerably  higher  in  recitations 
in  history  than  in  most  other  subjects  led  her  to  remark  that 
no  other  subject  in  the  curriculum  adheres  to  the  textbook  so 
closely  for  content,  organization,  and  method  as  history ;  and 
that  no  other  subject  confines  itself  so  steadfastly  to  facts.^ 


Teacher-Pupil  Activity 

The  proper  distribution  of  the  time  of  the  history-recitation 
period  between  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  is  yet  among  the 
many  unstandardized  phases  of  high-school  history  teaching. 
The  determining  factor  in  this  problem,  as  with  the  number  of 
questions,  is  found  in  the  form  of  the  recitation.  If  the  class 
period  is  devoted  to  a  lecture  by  the  teacher,  he  will  necessarily 
consume  most  of  the  time ;  if  the  socialized  recitation,  as  de- 
scribed above,  is  employed,  the  teacher  will  remain  in  the  back- 
ground, consuming  little  or  no  time.  Since  these  are  types  at 
each  end  of  the  scale,  it  remains  to  be  determined  what  the 
legitimate  proportion  in  an  ordinarily  conducted  history 
recitation  should  be.  / 

A  partial  answer  to  the  question  at  issue  may  be  found  in 
present  practices.  How  much  of  the  time  of  a  history  recitation 
are  teachers  actually  using,  and  how  much  are  they  permitting 

^  Stevens,  op.  cit.  p.  47  ;  L.  E.Taft,  "  The  Recitation  as  a  Factor  in  produc- 
ing Social  Efficiency,"  Education,  XXXIV,  147.      2  Stevens,  op.  cit.  p.  48. 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION 


25 


their  pupils  to  consume?  Few  attempts  have  been  made  to 
answer  these  queries.  Two  of  the  studies  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made  contain  some  material  along  this  line. 
Measuring  by  the  number  of  spoken  words  determined  by 
stenographic  reports  of  eleven  history  recitations,  the  following 
percentages  of  teacher-pupil  activity  were  established:^ 


Number  of  recitation 

1 

2 

3 

59 

4 

75 

5 

62 

6 

58 

7 

67 

8 

49 

9 

54 

10 

62 
38 

11 

Teacher-activity 

80 

58 

58 

Pupil-activity 

20 

42 

41 

^5 

38 

42 

33 

51 

46 

42 

The  interesting  fact  about  the  history  recitations  represented 
in  these  studies  is  that  in  but  one  case  was  the  pupil-activity 
greater  than  the  teacher-activity — the  average  for  the  eleven 
recitations  being  62  per  cent  for  teacher  and  ^8  per  cent  for 
pupil.  In  minutes  these  percentages  equal  24.8  and  15.2.  With 
thirty  in  a  class,  which  is  not  uncommon,  it  will  be  seen  that 
each  pupil  would  get  half  a  minute  "out  of  a  total  of  forty.  If 
the  teacher  could  be  sure  that  the  pupils'  minds  were  actually 
active  during  all  the  24.8  minutes  he  is  talking,  there  would  be 
some  justification  for  his  using  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  entire 
time.  Adequate  tests  have  not  yet  been  devised  to  determine 
this  matter.  In  the  meantime  it  would  seem  safe  for  the 
teacher  to  give  the  pupils  as  much  of  the  recitation  time  as 
consistency,  common  sense,  and  the  form  of  recitation  demand. 

Suggestions  and  Directions  for  conducting  a 
History  Recitation 

The  writer  has  found  from  experience  in  directing  practice 
teaching  in  high-school  history  that  it  is  necessary  to  furnish 
the  pupil-teacher  with  rather  specific  directions  concerning  the 
planning,  the  conducting,  and  the  managing  of  a  recitation. 
The  following  is  a  copy  of  some  suggestions  and  directions  for 


^  Stevens,  op.  cit.  p.  22 ;  Taft,  op.  cit.  p.  147. 


26  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

conducting  a  recitation  in  high-school  history  that  has  been 
used  in  this  connection  with  gratifying  results: 

I.  Form  of  the  recitation. 

1.  History  recitations  may  assume  various  forms.   Determine 

in  advance  the  form  you  are  to  use  and  make  your 
plans  accordingly. 

2.  The  form  of  the  recitation  will  determine  the  amount  of 

time  you  yourself  will  consume.    Keep  this  in  mind  and 
do  not  rob  the  pupils  of  time  legitimately  theirs. 
II.  Review  of  the  previous  lesson. 

1.  Determine  just  what  points  in  the  previous  lesson  or  lessons 

you  wish  to  review.  Indicate  these  under  method  of 
procedure  in  your  lesson  plan.. 

2.  Have  in  mind  just  how  much  time  you  intend  to  give  to 

the  previous  lesson  or  lessons,  to  the  new  lesson,  and 
to  the  assignment  of  next  day's  lesson.    Make  a  prac- 
tice of  adhering  to  this  schedule  rather  rigidly. 
III.  The  new  lesson. 

1.  Determine  how  it  is  to  be  introduced.   Keep  in  mind  its 

relation  to  the  previous  lesson  or  lessons. 

2.  Type  of  question :  Attempt  to  keep  a  reasonable  proportion 

of  thought  and  memory  questions.  Avoid  too  many 
direct  questions.  Guard  yourself  against  the  use  of 
double  or  triple  questions,  or  a  cumbersome  wording  of 
ordinary  questions.  Better  write  out  six  or  eight  leading 
questions  in  advance.  Let  them  appear  under  method  of 
procedure  in  your  lesson  plan. 

3.  The  amount  of  talking  and  explaining  done  by  the  teacher 

will  usually  be  small  in  comparison  with  that  done  by 
the  pupils. 

4.  Each  lesson  will  ordinarily  have  a  leading  problem.    Pupils 

should  have  the  main  problem  clearly  in  mind  in  order 
that  they  may  the  more  easily  grasp  the  big  points  de- 
veloped during  the  recitation  period. 

5.  A  summary  at  the  close  of  each  lesson  as  well  as  at  the 

conclusion  of  a  series  of  lessons  is  usually  worth  while. 
Keep  these  in  mind.  — 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION  27 

IV.  Assignment  of  the  next  day's  work. 

1.  Specific  directions  will  always  be  given  for  the  study  of  the 

new  lesson.  Often  some  directions  will  need  to  be  given 
for  the  review  of  the  previous  lesson  or  lessons. 

2.  Allow  yourself  ample  time  for  this  phase  of  the  work.   Be 

sure  that  the  pupils  understand  what  is  demanded  of 
them,  and  later  see  that  they  come  up  to  this  demand 
according  to  the  best  of  their  ability. 

3.  Collateral    reading    should   be    carefully   assigned.   Assign- 

ments of  special  topics  may  be  either  given  in  class  or 
placed  on  slips  and  passed  out  to  individual  pupils. 
V.  General  management. 

1.  Maps,  diagrams,  pictures,  and  other  illustrative  materials 

should  be  in  constant  use.  The  ones  for  the  day's  lesson 
must  be  arranged  before  the  recitation  begins. 

2.  Attention  and  interest  must  be  kept  up.    A  sign  of  both  is 

voluntary  discussions,  questions,  and  objections.  When 
these  are  lacking,  the  cause  must  be  sought,  and  some 
remedy  applied. 

3.  Dull,  diffident,  or  unprepared  members  of  the  class  must 

not  be  neglected.  Special  methods  may  need  to  be  de- 
vised for  these. 

4.  Seek  to  apply  the  principles  of  unity,  proportion,  and  co- 

herence. Aim  to  make  your  teaching  clear,  forceful,  and 
adapted  to  the  pupils.  Surround  yourself  with  all  the 
conditions  under  your  control  necessary  to  a  good  recita- 
tion in  history.  Stick  to  your  controlling  aim.  Keep 
the  pupils  well  informed  as  to  the  work  to  be  done,  the 
standards  to  be  reached,  the  methods  to  be  employed, 
and  the  materials  to  be  used. 

Directions  for  observing  and  Standards  for  judging 
Prospective  history  teachers,  in  training,  are  often  required  to 
visit  individually  or  collectively  a  number  of  well-taught  history 
recitations.  To  send  these  would-be  teachers  to  visit  without 
definite  directions  concerning  what  to  observe  and  note,  and 
before  giving  them  any  standards  by  which  to  measure 
good  history  teaching,  is  in  most  cases  a  waste  of  valuable 


28  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

time.  Hence  it  follows  that,  if  results  proportionate  to  the 
time  spent  in  observation  work  are  to  be  attained,  some  very 
specific  instructions,  directions,  and  standards  must  be  given 
the  observers.  The  writer  has  used  with  seemingly  good 
results  three  methods  of  obtaining  concreteness  and  definitene^ 
in  directing  the  observation  work  of  classes  in  the  teaching 
of  history. 

In  the  first  place,  after  spending  considerable  time  with  a 
class  in  discussing  the  various  phases  of  a  history  recitation, 
such  as  principles  governing,  fundamental  qualities,  controlling 
aim,  conditions  necessary,  etc.,  the  work  in  observation  is  begun. 
Each  member  of  the  group  observing  is  asked  to  make  as  full 
notes  as  possible  on  the  recitation  observed.  On  the  basis  of 
these  notes  the  recitation  as  a  whole  is  discussed  at  the  next 
meeting  of  the  class.  It  often  happens  that  three  successive 
observations  are  made  in  order  to  get  a  more  comprehensive 
view  of  the  work  of  the  demonstration  teacher.  By  such  a 
method  of  procedure  it  is  quite  easy  for  students  to  formulate 
concrete  and  definite  reports.  They  can  talk  about  principles, 
qualities,  teacher-pupil  activity,  and  the  history  question  as 
exemplified  in  the  recitation  or  recitations  observed,  and  back 
up  what  they  say  with  explicit  examples. 

After  teachers  in  training  have  learned  to  observe  the  recita- 
tion as  a  whole,  specialization  can  profitably  be  employed.  The 
class  is  now  divided  into  groups.  One  group  is  asked  to 
specialize  on  the  question,  another  on  management,  another 
on  principles  and  qualities,  and  so  on,  until  all  phases  of  the 
recitation  are  covered.  Each  group  is  asked  to  visit  not  less 
than  four  consecutive  recitations  on  which  to  base  conclusions 
relative  to  the  phase  or  phases  under  observation.  This  method 
secures  even  more  definite  results  than  the  one  described  in  the 
preceding  paragraph. 

Now,  after  the  class  has  had  some  training  in  the  use  of  the 
two  methods  already  described  and  if  the  teacher  wishes  to  see 
how  effectively  this  knowledge  can  be  used,  he  will  have  the 


THE  HISTORY  RECITATION 


29 


class  as  a  whole  visit  the  same  recitation  and  judge  it  by  means 
of  the  following  score  card  or  some  similar  scheme. 

A  HISTORY-RECITATION  SCORE  CARD 


Score 


.  I.    Principles  governing 

1.  Unity 

2.  Proportion 

3.  Coherence 

II.    Fundamental  qualities 

1.  Clearness 

2.  Force 

3.  Adaptation 

III.  Conditions  necessary 

1.  Freedom  from  distractions  

2.  Preparation  of  teacher  and  pupils 

3.  Equipment 

IV.  Management 

1.  Assignment  of  the  new  lesson 

2.  The  review 

3.  The  new  lesson 

4.  The  summary 

5.  Technic  of  management 

V.    Form,  questions,  teacher-pupil  activity 

1.  Adaptation  of  form  to  work  in  hand  

2.  Adaptation  of  number  and  kind  of  questions  to  form 

3.  Teacher-pupil  activity 

4.  Quality  of  questions 

Grade  on  recitation  as  a  whole 


In  using  the  score  card  each  arabic-numbered  item  can  be 
graded  on  the  basis  of  10.  From  this  data  the  grade  to  be 
given  to  each  of  the  five  main  items  can  be  determined,  and 
from  these  five  grades  the  score  of  the  recitation  as  a  whole  is 


30  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

made  up.  For  instance,  the  grade  of  68  per  cent  on  the  recita- 
tion as  a  whole  in  the  foregoing  example  was  attained  as  fol- 
lows: When  judged  as  to  unity  the  recitations  seemed  to  be 
worth  7,  using  lo  as  a  basis;  on  proportion  and  coherence, 
5  and  6  respectively.  The  sum  of  these  grades  divided  by  3 
gives  the  grade  (6)  on  I  (Principles  governing).  The  remain- 
ing items  were  similarly  treated.  The  sum  of  the  grades  on  the 
five  main  items  is  found  to  be  34.  This  number  divided  by  5 
and  multiplied  by  10  gives  the  grade  68.  Such  a  scheme  .is 
very  easily  manipulated,  as  there  is  no  dealing  in  large  numbers. 

ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 

Betts,  G.  H.    The  Recitation.   Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1910, 

Clark,  Lotta.  "A  Good  Way  to  teach  History,"  School  Review,  XVII 
(1909),  255  ff. 

Cribbs,  G.  A.  "Methods  of  attaining  and  testing  Efficiency  in  History 
Instruction,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VI  (191S),  241  ff. 

Hartwell,  E.  C.  "The  Method  of  the  Recitation,"  Part  IV  in  The 
Teaching  of  History.   Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1913. 

LiBBY,  Walter.  "  Forms  of  High-School  Recitation,"  Education,  XXVIII 
(1908),  601  ff. 

Morehouse,  Frances.  "Forms  of  the  History  Recitation,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VII  (1916),  332  ff, 

Stevens,  Romiett.  The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in  Instruc- 
tion.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  191 2. 

Taft,  L.  E.  "The  Recitation  as  a  Factor  in  producing  Social  Efficiency," 
Education,  XXXIV  (1913),  i4S  ff- 

Trenholme,  N.  M.  "The  Organization  of  the  Recitation,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  I  (1909),  74  ff. 

WiLLL\MS,  O.  H.  "Standards  for  judging  History  Instruction,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VI  (1915),  235  ff. 

WoLFSON,  A.  M.  "The  Efficiency  of  the  History  Recitation,"  Educa- 
tional Review,  XLV  (1913)  >  444  ff. 


CHAPTER  II 

TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  STUDY  HISTORY 

A  history  teacher  once  assigned  a  class  the  next  five  pages 
for  the  advanced  lesson.  The  recitation  on  those  pages  the 
following  day  went  very  badly.  In  attempting  to  locate  the 
cause  of  this  poor  work,  it  was  revealed  that  a  number  of  the 
pupils  had  read  the  assignment  as  many  as  five  times.  With 
this  seeming  care  in  preparation,  however,  these  students  were 
unable  to  participate  in  the  recitation  to  the  teacher's  satisfac- 
tion. After  a  number  of  experiences  of  this  same  character  he 
began  to  ask  himself:  ^^What  is  the  trouble?  Do  these  boys 
and  girls  know  how  to  study  history?  Do  I  know  as  much 
about  their  study  habits  as  I  should?  Are  there  any  general 
rules  for  study  that  I  can  give  them?  Why  can't  I  supervise 
them  individually  while  they  study  ? "  Attempts  to  answer 
questions  like  these  have  resulted  in  a  considerable  body  of 
material  of  interest  and  value  to  the  rank  and  file  of  history 
teachers.  It  is  to  a  presentation  of  this  material  that  this 
chapter  is  devoted. 

How  High-School  Pupils  study  History 

Very  soon  after  a  teacher  takes  charge  of  a  new  class  in 
history  he  should  set  up  the  machin^^v  necessary  to  acquaint 
himself  with  the  study  habits  of  each  individual  in  the  class. 
Answers  to  the  following  or  a  similar  list  of  questions  would 
furnish  valuable  information  in  this  connection. 

1.  How  many  times  do  you  read  your  lesson? 

2.  Do  you  look  up  in  the  dictionary  new  words  which  you  do 
not  understand? 

31 


32  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

3.  Do  you  locate  new  towns  or  countries  on  the  maps? 

4.  Do  you  turn  to  the  pronouncing  vocabulary  for  the  pronun- 
ciation of  capital  names? 

5.  Do  you  ask  yourself  questions   on  the  lesson  and  try  to 
answer  them? 

6.  Do  you  close  your  book  and  recite  to  yourself  the  story  of 
the  lesson? 

7.  Do  you  ever  make  a  list  of  the  paragraph  topics  in  the 
lesson  and  recite  them  to  yourself? 

8.  Do  you  take  notes  on  the  lesson  unless  you  are  required  to? 

9.  Do  you  use  other  books  in  addition  to  your  text  unless 
required  to? 

10.  Do  you  read  the  footnotes? 

11.  When  you  are  referred  to  some  point  previously  mentioned 
do  you  turn  back  and  hunt  it  up? 

12.  Do  you  underscore  important  words  or  sentences  in  your 
book? 

13.  Do  you  ever  compare  or  contrast  two  men  or  two  events 
unless  asked  to? 

14.  Do  you  try  to  remember  important  events  by  remembering 
dates? 

15.  Do  you,  as  a  rule,  read  the  lesson  once  through  before 
attempting  to  get  the  details? 

After  the  history  teacher  has  secured  the  information  which 
the  answers  to  the  preceding  fifteen  questions  would  give  him, 
it  will  be  worth  his  while  to  look  into  the  matter  of  methods  of 
studying  history  as  reported  by  high-school  pupils  in  schools 
other  than  his  own.  One  of  the  first  studies  along  this  line  in 
which  history  was  included  was  conducted  by  N.  C.  Johnson, 
in  1899.  Among  the  things  of  interest  to  history  teachers  in 
this  inquiry  is  a  tabulation  of  the  methods  used  by  pupils 
in  studying  history.  Standing  first  in  this  list  is  "repeated 
readings."  Other  methods  in  the  order  of  their  most  fre- 
quent occurrence  are:  selecting  important  topics,  reflecting 
upon  the  lesson,  reciting  to  one's  self,  reciting  to  other  pupils, 
imaging  place  and  events,  making  a  map,  writing  down  the 
lesson,  reading  and  reflecting  on  each  sentence,  remembering 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO   STUDY  HISTORY      33 

one  event  by  another  that  occurred  at  the  same  time  or  is 
otherwise  more  or  less  closely  related  to  it.^ 

A  more  recent  investigation  along  this  same  line  is  the  one 
made  by  G.  E.  Rickard  when  he  was  teaching  high-school  his- 
tory in  Oakland  City,  Indiana.  In  Table  II  are  found  the 
methods  of  studying  history  which  Rickard  discovered  and 
the  percentage  of  the  students  using  each. 


TABLE  II.   HOW  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS  STUDY  HISTORY  2 


Grade 

High-School  Sections 

Methods  of  Studying 

7th 

8th 

I 

2 

3 

4 

Per  ce7it 

Per  cejit 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

I.  Read  once 

91 

86 

86 

72 

87 

60 

2.  Use  discrimination     .    . 

— 

— 

43 

55 

35 

40 

3.  Use  maps 

71 

14 

21 

— 

— 

4.  Use  additional  references 

20 

55 

65 

II 

23 

24 

5.  Re-read  once  or  more     . 

5 

45 

50 

28 

30 

24 

6.  Prepare  map 

— 

— 

65 

— 

— 

7.  Get  sequence  of  topics  . 

II 

41 

14 

— 

— 

12 

8.  Find  date 

— 

— 

28 

— 



9.  Underscore     . 

— 

7 

— 



ID.  Outline    . 

3 

7 

28 

I  '^ 

II.  Jot  down  notes 

3 

II 

19 

4 

8 

12.  Review  .    .    . 







5 
28 

13.  Learn  dates    . 

— 



—  • 



14.  Study  margins 

.    . 

— 

— 

— 

18 

— 



15.  Write  dates     . 

,    . 

— 

— 

— 

16 

— 

4 

16.  Restudy  by  outline     .    . 

— 

— 

— 

24 

3 

4 

17.  Find  unknown  words 

74 

24 

— 

33 

18.  Recall  without  book   .     . 

Zl 

17 

— 

28 

— 

19.  Get  general  view    .    .    . 

— 

— 

25 

16 

20.  Topical  recall     .... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

25 

4 

21,  Connect  dates  with  events 

3 

3 



12 

12 

22.  Recite  to  a  friend  .    .    . 



3 

23.  Tell  to  self 

9 

10 

— 

.  — 

33 

24.  Underscore  important  words 

— 

— 

— 

16 

4 

1"  Habits  of  Work  and  Methods  of  Study  of  High-School  Pupils," 
School  Review^  VII,  270. 

^  Compiled  from  studies  made  by  Rickard  and  reported  in  his  Some 
Aspects  of  the  Supervision  of  Study ^  p.  42,  and  School  Review,  XXII,  675. 


34  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

In  the  course  of  his  investigations  Rickard^  secured  some 
interesting  concrete  point-by-point  tabulations  of  what  pupils 
actually  do  in  preparing  a  history  lesson.  In  answer  to 
the  request,  "Describe  point  by  point  the  different  things 
you  do  in  preparing  your  history  lesson,"  a  twelve-year-old 
pupil  in  Grade  VII A  wrote: 

1.  Read  the  lesson  over. 

2.  Read  about  it  in  other  books. 

3.  Look  up  words  I  do  not  understand. 

4.  Then  I  make  outline  of  paragraphs  and  look  up  each  point. 

A  second-year  high-school  student  listed  the  different  things 
which  she  did  in  preparing  a  history  lesson  as  follows : 

1.  I  read  each  separate  paragraph  and  get  the  main  points. 

2.  I  discuss  to  myself  freely  the  main  points  and  their  relation  to 
other  parts. 

3.  I  read  it  all  over  again  to  be  sure  I  have  not  missed  a  single 
point. 

4.  If  I  come  to  a  word  I  don't  understand,  I  look  it  up. 

5.  I  locate  in  the  atlas  every  city  and  country  mentioned. 

Another  student  replied : 

1.  I  put  myself  in  the  place  of  one  of  the  characters  in  the  lesson. 

2.  I  shut  my  eyes  and  think  of  it  as  a  picture,  one  scene  at  a 
time. 

3.  Sometimes  in  battles,  I  read  the  battle  over,  then  draw  a  plan 
of  the  battle. 

4.  I  locate  in  the  geography  places  mentioned. 

After  the  history  teacher  has  finished  the  survey  of  the  study- 
habits  of  the  members  of  his  own  classes  and  made  some  inquiry 
how  pupils  in  other  schools  get  their  history  lessons,  he  is  ready 
for  the  next  step  in  teaching  his  pupils  how  to  study.  In  all 
probability  at  this  stage  in  the  solution  of  his  problem  he  will 
find  himself  confronted  with  a  threefold  task :   ( i )  correcting 

^  "  High-School  Students'  Description  of  their  Methods  of  Study," 
School  Review,  XXll,  6j6i.  * 


TEACHING  PUPILS   TO   STUDY  HISTORY      35 

undesirable  study-habits  ;  (2)  encouraging  desirable  ones ;  and 
(3)  offering  concrete  suggestions  along  new  lines  of  attack. 
However,  before  the  teacher  can  intelligently  solve  the  out- 
standing problems  relative  to  this  stage  of  his  work  he  will 
need  to  look  into  the  psychological  aspects  of  the  general  sub- 
ject of  how  to  study  and  of  teaching  how  to  study. 


Psychology  as  an  Aid  to  teaching  how  to 
STUDY  History 

Since  studying  is  largely  a  mental  process,  the  history  teacher 
will  have  to  draw  on  his  knowledge  of  a  few  of  the  most  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  subject  of  psychology  in  formulating 
a  plan  to  follow  in  teaching  his  pupils  how  to  study.  He  will, 
indeed,  have  to  become  a  psychologist  for  the  time  being.  For 
practical  purposes  and  immediate  use  he  will  read  with  much 
care  discussions  of  the  psychological  phases  of  study  in  gen- 
eral, such  as  the  one  by  Judd  in  his  Psychology  of  High-School 
Subjects,^  the  one  by  Kitson  in  his  How  to  use  your  Mind,^ 
and  possibly  Whipple's  thirty-eight  rules  for  study  in  his  How 
to  study  Effectively.  Not  until  a  teacher  has  read  and  mastered 
the  contents  of  such  discussions  as  these  will  he  be  able  to  do 
effective  work  in  teaching  his  pupils  how  to  study  history.  But 
some  one  asks,  "What  are  the  practical  things  for  a  history 
teacher  in  such  discussions  ?  "  The  answer  is  simple.  The  help- 
seeking  teacher  of  history  will  come  out  jDf  a  thoughtful  reading 
of  these  and  similar  discussions  with  fixed  convictions  as  to  the 
paramount  importance  of  the  following  factors  in  effective  his- 
tory study:  a  rapid  preliminary  survey,  concentration,  the 
difference  between  reading  and  studying  a  book,  the  value  and 
use  of  standards  in  studying,  the  value  of  a  regular  plan  of 
attack,  selecting  essentials,  elaborating  a  theme,  the  value  of 
frequent  reviews,  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  long 

1  Chap,  xvii,  "  Teaching  Students  how  to  Study." 

2  Chap,  iv,  "  Formation  of  Study-Habits." 


36  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

and  short  periods  of  study,  the  use  and  abuse  of  an  outline,  and 
effective  book-marking.  Considerable  time  can  profitably  be 
spent  with  a  class  in  discussing  these  phases  of  the  problem  of 
study  as  they  relate  to  the  field  of  history.  Out  of  this  discus- 
sion there  should  come  a  set  of  rules,  formulated  by  the  teacher 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  class,  subsequently  to  serve  as  a 
guide  in  studying  history  lessons.  To  aid  the  teacher  in  this 
matter  the  following  suggestions  relative  to  directions  and  rules 
for  studying  history  are  offered : 

Directions  and  Rules  for  studying  History 

Some  high-school  principals  provide  general  directions  for 
studying.  These  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  teachers  and 
pupils  alike.  WTien  such  is  the  case,  the  history  teacher  will 
need  only  to  develop  with  his  classes  directions  and  rules  which 
are  especially  applicable  to  the  study  of  his  subject.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  general  directions  which  Mr.  F.  M.  Hammitt  of 
the  Mason  City,  Iowa,  high  school  furnished  the  pupils  when 
he  was  principal  of  the  school  in  191 5.  It  will  be  observed 
that  they  are  both  general  and  specific  in  character.  The 
specific  ones  which  tell  how  to  get  a  lesson  seem  to  have  been 
prepared  with  the  history  lesson  in  mind.  In  fact,  they  might 
have  been  labeled  "To  Get  a  History  Lesson." 

HOW  TO  STUDY 

I.  Have  a  regular  time  to  study.  Let  nothing  interfere  with 
this  time  when  it  is  once  determined.  This  will  be  hard  at  first, 
but  will  soon  become  a  habit,  hence  easy. 

II.  Choose  a  place  where  you  can  study.  This  place  must  be 
one  where  you  are  comparatively  free  from  interruptions.  It  need 
not  be  a  place  absolutely  quiet,  as  usual  noises  soon  cease  to  force 
themselves  on  your  attention. 

III.  Use  your  will  power  to  hold  yourself  to  thf^task  in  hand. 
You  can't  study  one  minute  and  then  gaze  out  of  the  window  a 
minute  or  think  about  other  pupils,  and  accomplish  much. 


TEACHING   PUPILS   TO   STUDY  HISTORY       37 

TO  GET  A  LESSON 

I.  Get  the  topic  or  topics  clearly  in  mind.  In  other  words,  find 
out  where  you  are  going,  then  go  there  and  nowhere  else. 

II.  After  you  know  what  the  subject  is  you  are  to  study,  get 
what  the  book  gives  as  the  main  or  principal  thought.  Then  get 
the  details.  It  is  well  to  underline  the  principal  sentence  in  a 
paragraph,  but  note  that  each  paragraph  has  only  one  principal 
sentence.    Too  much  underlining  confuses. 

III.  After  you  have  thus  studied  one  main  division  of  the  lesson, 
close  the  book  and  attempt  to  recite  it  to  yourself,  making  notes 
if  necessary.  Then  compare  your  recitation  with  the  author's 
presentation. 

IV.  Relate  the  details  with  the  main  topics. 

V.  Talk  over  the  lesson  with  others  only  after  you  have  studied 
it.  Repetition  fixes  things  in  your  mind,  so  the  oftener  you  think 
your  lessons  over,  the  better  it  will  be  for  you. 

VI.  Do  not  try  to  hold  unrelated  facts.  Get  a  relationship  for 
each  fact.  The  more  relationships  you  can  get,  the  more  securely 
will  it  be  fastened  in  your  mind.  Your  teachers  will  supplement 
these  instructions. 

The  teacher's  right  to  adapt  these  rules  to  his  needs  is  recog- 
nized in  the  last  sentence,  "Your  teachers  will  supplement 
these  instructions."  In  the  practical  application  of  such  a  set 
of  directions  to  his  work  in  history,  the  teacher  could  make  the 
expression  "To  Get  a  Lessoti"  read  "To  Get  a  History  Lesson." 
Then  he  would  be  at  liberty  to  use  the  principal's  suggestions 
along  with  those  he  and  his  class  work  out ;  the  students  would 
gladly  cooperate  in  putting  into  practice  such  a  set  of  rules 
as  would  result  from  this  method  of  procedure. 

Another  school  which  regularly  furnishes  its  pupils  with 
general  study  helps  is  The  University  of  Chicago  High  School. 
To  supply  each  student  with  a  set  of  these  helps  has  been  the 
custom  of  this  school  for  a  number  of  years.  Inasmuch  as  the 
custom  has  been  continued  from  year  to  year  it  seems  to  be 
successful.  The  character  of  these  helps  may  be  seen  from  the 
revised  copy  for  the  school  year  1919-1920,  which  follows: 


38  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

STUDY  HELPS 

The  habits  of  study  formed  in  school  are  of  greater  importance 
than  the  subjects  mastered.  The  following  suggestions,  if  carefully 
followed,  will  help  you  make  your  mind  an  eflftcient  tool.  Your 
daily  aim  should  be  to  learn  your  lesson  in  less  time,  or  to  learn  it 
better  in  the  same  time. 

1.  Form  a  time  and  place  habit  by  studying  the  lesson  in  the 
same  subject,  in  the  same  place,  at  the  same  time  each  day.  Don't 
study  immediately  after  a  hearty  meal. 

2.  Have  proper  study  conditions  and  equipment — a  quiet  room 
not  too  warm,  good  light  at  the  left,  a  straight  chair  and  table,  the 
necessary  books,  tools,  and  materials. 

3.  Sti^^y  independently.  Do  your  own  work  and  use  your  own 
judgment,  asEng  for  help  only  when  you  cannot  proceed  without 
it,  thus  developing  abihty  to  think  for  yourself,  and  the  will  power 
and  self-reliance  essential  to  success. 

4.  Arrange  your  tasks  economically;  study  those  requiring 
fresh  attention,  like  reading,  first ;  those  in  which  concentration  is 
easier,  like  written  work,  later. 

5.  Sit  straight  and  go  at  the  work  vigorously,  with  confidence 
and  determination,  without  lounging  or  waste  of  time.  When 
actually  tired,  exercise  a  moment,  open  the  window,  change  to  a 
different  type  of  work. 

6.  Be  clear  on  the  assignment  and  the  form  in  which  it  is  to  be 
delivered.  In  class  take  notes  when  the  assignment  is  made  ;  mark 
things  to  be  carefully  learned.    When  in  doubt  consult  the  teacher. 

7.  In  committing  material  to  memory,  learn  it  as  a  whole  ;  go 
over  it  quickly  first,  then  more  carefully,  and  then  again  and  again 
until  you  have  it.  In  learning  forms,  rules,  vocabularies,  etc.  it  will 
help  to  repeat  them  aloud. 

8.  In  studying  material  to  be  understood  and  digested  but  not 
memorized,  first  go  over  the  whole  quickly,  then  carefully  section 
by  section ;  then,  if  possible,  review  the  whole  quickly. 

9.  Use  judgment  as  well  as  memory;  smalyze  paragraphs, 
select  important  points,  note  how  minor  ones  are  related  to  them ; 
use  your  pencil  freely  to  mark  important  points  so  that  you  may 
learn  systematically  and  review  easily. 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO   STUDY  HISTORY      39 

10.  Study  an  advance  lesson  promptly  and  review  before  going  to 
class ;  recall  memorized  matter  by  repeating  it,  aloud  if  necessary ; 
think  through  a  series  of  points  to  see  that  you  have  them  in  order 
in  your  mind. 

11,  Use  all  the  material  aids  available — index,  appendix,  notes, 
vocabulary,  maps,  illustrations  in  your  textbook,  as  well  as  other 
books  and  periodicals. 

These  two  examples  of  general  directions  and  rules  for  study 
are  sufficient  to  give  the  history  teacher  an  idea  of  what  is  at 
his  command,  as  well  as  to  serve  as  an  aid  in  formulating 
similar  rules  for  his  own  subject,  which  seems  never  to  have 
been  done  with  any  degree  of  satisfaction  to  history  teachers, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  considerable  effort  has  been  ex- 
pended in  this  direction.  For  example,  Mr.  Rickard  catne  out 
of  his  experiments  and  investigation  relative  to  teaching  pupils 
to  study  history  with  the  following  set  of  directions  : 

DIRECTIONS  TO  PUPILS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  HISTORY 

I.  Only  a  few  of  the  most  important  dates  will  be  assigned,  but 
these  should  be  connected  with  their  proper  event  and  learned  as 
thoroughly  as  a  multipHcation  table. 

II.  Write  out  and  pronounce  all  proper  names.  Try  to  connect 
each  name  with  some  place  and  some  event. 

III.  Use  map,  dictionary,  and  additional  references  for  every 
location  and  word  you  are  not  sure  of. 

IV.  Try  to  find  the  cause  or  causes  of  each  event. 

V.  In  comparison  and  contrast  set  down  likenesses  and  differ- 
ences, point  by  point,  in  parallel  columns. 

VI.  Ask  yourself  constantly  what  the  most  important  events 
in  your  lesson  are,  and  why. 

VII.  Tell  the  story  of  your  lesson  to  yourself  in  detail  and  in 
order.  Be  sure  to  use  any  terms  you  have  recently  learned  the 
meaning  of. 

VIII.  After  reading  each  paragraph  ask  yourself,  "How  is  this 
paragraph  related  to  the  chapter  heading?" 

IX.  Jot  down  a  brief  memorandum  of  the  points  of  each  lesson 
which  you  regard  as  especially  important. 


40  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

A  more  definite  and  practical  set  of  study  helps  than  the 
foregoing  is  the  one  originated  by  Miss  Elizabeth  Thorndyke, 
of  the  Hughes  High  School,  Cincinnatr,  Ohio.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  year  Miss  Thorndyke  presents  each  member  of  her  his- 
tory classes  with  a  little  card  which  contains  nine  directions 
which  are  to  be  followed  in  preparing  history  lessons.  Below  is 
a  copy  of  this  card :  ^ 

STUDY  PLAN  FOR  THE  HISTORY  LESSON 

I.  First  reading ;  for  pleasure  and  general  idea. 

II.  Second  reading ;  accompanied  by  the  writing  of  a  list  of  new 
names  and  memorizing  of  all  new  names,  dates,  and  places. 

III.  Practice  rapid  sketching  of  maps  or  diagrams  in  lesson.  For 
blackboard  reproduction. 

IV.  Make  a  written  outline  of  important  topics  and  subtopics. 
For  blackboard  reproduction. 

V.  Formulate  three  or  four  quiz  questions. 

VI.  Search  for  parallels  and  contrasts. 

VII.  Select  the  problem  of  the  lesson. 

VIII.  Construct  graph  illustrating  main  issues  or  problems.  For 
blackboard  reproduction. 

IX.  Practice  aloud  making  a  floor  talk,  or  oral  summary  of  the 
lesson. 

Whatever  adverse  criticism  one  might  make  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding sets  of  directions  for  studying  history,  one  must  admit 
that  there  is  more  good  than  bad  in  them.  It  would  prob- 
ably be  better  to  tell  the  overconscientious  pupil  to  make  a 
list  of  only  those  new  names  in  the  lesson  which  the  teacher  in- 
dicates from  time  to  time  and  to  memorize  only  such  names, 
dates,  and  places  as  the  teacher,  in  cooperation  with  the  class, 
points  out  as  worth  remembering,  thaa  to  put  the  direction  as 
Miss  Thorndyke  has  it.  Furthermore,  to  tell  pupils  to  use  the 
map,  dictionary,  and  additional  references  for  every  location 
and  word  they  are  not  sure  of,  as  Rickard  does,  would  as  a  rule 

1  For  details  as  to  the  use  of  the  card  see  "  A  Lesson  in  History," 
Ohio  History  Teacher's  Journal  (November,  191 6),  p.  112. 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO   STUDY  HISTORY       41 

cause  certain  students  to  waste  much  valuable  time.  While  it 
is  desirable  that  history  students  acquire  the  habit  of  looking 
up  things  they  do  not  know,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  they 
should  form  this  habit  through  the  constant  looking  up  of 
unimportant  details. 

Can  a  set  of  general  study  helps  in  history  be  formulated 
which  will  avoid  the  pitfalls  in  the  foregoing  and  at  the  same 
time  preserve  the  good  and  supply  the  omissions  ?  The  follow- 
ing are  offered  as  an  attempt  in  this  direction : 

HOW  TO  STUDY  A  HISTORY  LESSON  BASED  ON 
A  TEXTBOOK 

1.  Make  a  rapid  preliminary  survey  of  the  material  in  your  text 
on  which  the  assignment  is  based.  On  concluding  this  survey  you 
should  have  the  main  division  of  the  lesson  clearly  in  mind. 

2.  Make  a  critical  survey  of  the  material  in  the  text  covering  the 
first  main  division.  This  should  result  in  a  clear  idea  of  the  main 
topics  in  this  division. 

3.  Get  the  details  the  text  contains  on  each  main  topic  in  the  first 
division.  Relate  these  to  each  main  topic  and  to  the  subject  of  the 
main  division.  Close  your  book  and  recite  what  you  now  know 
concerning  the  first  main  division. 

4.  Repeat  2  and  3  with  each  main  division  of  the  assignment. 

5.  When  collateral  reading  is  assigned  on  a  main  division  of  the 
lesson,  apply  the  same  method  of  procedure  in  mastering  it  as  you 
did  in  i,  2,  and  3  above.    You  may  need  to  outline  this  material. 

6.  Repeat  5  in  mastering  the  collateral  reading  assigned  on  each 
main  division. 

7.  Tell  the  story  of  the  entire  lesson  to  yourself  in  detail  and  in 
order.  Make  use  of  the  information  secured  in  your  collateral 
reading,  bringing  it  in  where  it  belongs. 

8.  Review  the  previous  lesson.  Relate  the  present  one  to  it.  Put 
the  two  lessons  together  in  the  form  of  a  narrative  if  their  relation 
is  sufficiently  close. 

One  other  thing  should  be  said  before  concluding  this  section. 
It  is  this :  Directions  and  rules  for  study  are  made  to  be  used 


42  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

• 
and  not  merely  to  be  discussed  by  the  teacher  and  class  for 

a  few  days  and  then  to  be  placed  on  the  shelf  of  disuse. 
The  responsibility  in  this  matter  rests  largely  with  the  teacher. 
In  so  far  as  possible  he  should  conduct  his  daily  work  and  make 
his  assignments  so  that  pupils  will  be  led  to  follow  the  study 
directions.  In  no  better  way  can  rules  and  directions  be  trans- 
formed into  daily  habits  of  procedure  on  the  part  of  the  pupils, 
the  end  for  which  the  teacher  is  always  striving. 

Supervised  Study  in  High-School  History 

The  discussion  in  this  chapter  so  far  has  contained  nothing 
on  what  of  late  has  come  to  be  known  as  supervised  study. 
The  history  teacher  need  not  be  surprised  if  he  is  called  upon 
to  conduct  supervised  study.  To  do  such  work  effectively  seems 
more  difficult  in  history  than  in  some  other  studies.  For 
example,  to  supervise  individual  students  while  they  are  silently 
studying  their  history  lesson  at  their  seats  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult than  supervising  students  while  they  study  algebra,  Latin, 
grammar,  or  geometry.  Unless  the  history  student  is  making 
an  illustration,  a  map,  or  an  outline,  or  doing  some  other  form 
of  expression  work,  the  teacher  cannot  always  tell  what  progress 
he  is  making  and  where  his  difficulties  are. 

Since  supervised  study  aims  to  reach  the  individual  student 
in  a  way  that  traditional  class  study  cannot  do,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  the  history  teacher  to  develop  a  special  technic  for 
the  work  before  undertaking  it.  To  date,  there  has  been  but 
little  done  to  aid  him  in  this  matter.  Mr.  Rickard,  who  has 
been  mentioned  in  another  connection,  made  a  small  beginning 
in  developing  a  technic  for  supervising  the  study  of  history. 
A  reorganization  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  semester  prevented 
him  from  carrying  his  plan  far  enough  to  determine  its  efficacy. 
Briefly  his^teclmc,  as  it  related  to  supervision,  was  as  follows : 

First,  definite  aims  or  ends  to  be  reached  by  history  teaching 
were  set  up.   These  were : 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO   STUDY  HISTORY      43 

1.  To  develop  the  pupil's  ability  to  answer  questions  based  on  : 

a.  Acquisition  of  the  proper  concept  of  new  and  technical  terms. 

b.  Mastery  of  the  subject  matter. 

c.  Interpretation  of  source  material. 

d.  Abstracting    collateral   reading   and   connecting   it   with    the 

outline  of  the  text. 

2.  To  develop  the  pupil's  ability  to  act  by : 

a.  Arranging  logical  outlines  and  abstracts  of  the  subject  matter 

of  the  text. 

b.  Arranging  tabulations  of  time  sequences  of  events  and  persons, 

grouped  according  to  some  convenient  unit,  as  decades  or 
centuries. 

c.  Drawing  maps  which  shall  more  or  less  closely  approximate 

some  ideal  which  the  instructor  has  previously  analyzed 
into  its  elements. 

d.  Collecting  material  on  a  given  topic,  organizing  it  logically, 

citing  references,  and  preparing  bibUographies. 

In  the  second  place  Mr.  Rickard  determined  upon  a  definite 
method  of  procedure  both  for  the  teacher  and  for  the  pupils. 
In  outline  this  method  was : 

I.  On  the  part  of  the  instructor  : 

a.  A  ten-minute  examination  at  the  beginning  of  each  day's  recita- 

tion on  questions  chosen  at  random  from  the  previous  day's 
supervised  study.  (Not  essential  to  the  plan ;  given  for 
purposes  of  comparison.) 

b.  A  definite  assignment  (which  should  usually  take  the  form  of 

questions)  involving  one  or  more  of  the  above  aims. 
(Time,  5  minutes  near  the  beginning  of  the  period,  the 
remaining  time  to  be  spent  as  follows.) 

c.  Assisting  the  individual  pupil  by  the  aid  of  reference  books  or 

questions  to  get  proper  concepts  of  the  new  and  technical 
terms  in  the  assignment  just  made. 

d.  Reading  with  the  individual  pupil  the  text,  source,  or  col- 

lateral reading,  and  pointing  out  to  him  the  answers  to  the 
questions  in  the  assignment  just  made. 

e.  Assisting  the  pupil  definitely  to  arrange  the  outlines,  tabula- 

tions, or  maps  of  the  assignment  just  made  by  pointing 


44  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

out  to  him  the  elements  in  his  task  to  be  striven  for,  and 
criticizing  constructively  his  work. 
/.  Giving  to  each  pupil  an  approximately  equal  amount  of  time. 
2.  On  the  part  of  the  pupil : 

a.  Writing  the   ten-minute  examination   set  by   the  instructor. 

b.  Making  a  memorandum  of  the  assignment.    (Time,  5  minutes. 

The  following  to  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  period.) 

c.  Study  with  the  teacher  as  per  above. 

d.  Independent  work  with  pen,  books,  and  paper  on  the  assign- 

ment just  made,  when  he  is  not  being  assisted  by  the 
teacher.^ 

The  first  thing  for  a  teacher  to  do  in  undertaking  the  direc- 
tion of  individual  pupils  while  studying  their  history  lesson  is 
to  outline  the  supervised-study  technic  which  he  expects  to 
use.  He  will  find  no  ready-made  outline  which  will  meet  all 
of  his  needs.  The  one  given  above  contains  valuable  sugges- 
tions. By  making  use  of  it  and  the  following  more  elaborate 
one  an  ambitious  teacher  should  be  able  to  formulate  a  usable 
technic  of  supervised  study  in  history. 

THE  TECHNIC  OF  SUPERVISED  STUDY  IN  HISTORY 

I.  Preliminary  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

1.  Planning  the  course  in  which  supervised  study  is  to  be  done 

in  considerable  detail  before  the  work  begins.  This 
means  that  the  teacher  should  know  the  six  or  eight  main 
divisions  of  the  field,  the  time  to  be  given  to  each 
division,  the  maps  to  be  made,  the  personages  to  be 
known  and  identified,  and  the  dates  and  events  to  be 
remembered. 

2.  Dividing  each  of  the  main  divisions  into  lesson  units  in  so 

far  as  possible.  This  means  much  work,  but  it  must  be 
done  if  definiteness  is  tK  be  a  characteristic  of  the  work. 

3.  In  connection  with  each  lesson  unit,  determining  upon  the 

types  of  written  work  to  be  done,  references  to  be  read, 
diagrams  to  be  made,  maps  to  be  filled  in,  reports  to  be 

^  Rickard,  Some  Aspects  of  the  Supervision  of  Study  ^  pp.  3  ff. 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO   STUDY  HISTORY      45 

given,  comparisons  to  be  worked  out,  problems  to  be 
solved,  and  illustrations  to  be  used. 

4.  Formulating  in  cooperation  with  the  class  a  set  of  directions 

and  rules  for  effective  history  study.  In  doing  this, 
much  use  of  the  general  directions  for  study  given  to  the 
student  body  should  be  made,  providing  such  directions 
are  supplied. 

5.  In  so  far  as  it  is  in  his  power,  seeing  that  the  study  room 

is  well  equipped  with  reading-tables,  reference  books, 
maps,  charts,  diagrams,  pictures,  and  other  equipment 
necessary  for  effective  study  in  history.  A  history  teacher 
must  be  as  zealous  concerning  the  necessary  equipment 
of  his  laboratory  as  the  physics,  chemistry,  and  science 
teachers  are  concerning  theirs. 
II.  The  teacher's  work  when  supervised  study  is  under  way. 

1.  Making  clear  to  each  student  the  work  to  be  done,  the 

standard  to  be  reached,  and  the  material  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  each  lesson  unit. 

2.  Keeping  the  directions  for  history  study  constantly  before 

the  class,  making  particular  appHcations  to  the  work 
in  hand,  and  discussing  with  the  class  special  features 
of  methods  of  study  particularly  apphcable  to  certain 
topics  and  lesson  units. 

3.  Inspecting  the  work  of  each  student  to  determine: 

a.  Progress  he  is  making. 

b.  Difficulties  he  is  encountering. 

c.  Method  of  study  he  is  using. 

d.  Material  he  is  reading. 

e.  Results  he  is  accomplishing. 
/.  Effort  he  is  putting  forth. 
g.  Errors  he  is  committing. 

4.  Giving  specific  aid  to  each  pupil  in  the  form  of  : 

a.  Checking  mistakes  and  correcting  erroneous  methods. 

b.  Suggesting  additional  devices,  methods,  and  references. 

c.  Stimulating  initiative  in  the  filling  in  of  outline  maps,  and 

the  making  of  diagrams  and  graphs. 

d.  Guiding    in    the    making    of    outlines,    summaries,    and 

synopses. 


46  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

e.  Pointing  out  mistakes  in  content,  form,  punctuation,  etc., 

in  written  work. 
/.  Encouraging  the  constant  use  of  maps,  charts,  pictures,  and 

similar  equipment  in  the  preparation  of  a  lesson  unit. 
g.  Hearing  individual   recitations   on  phases   of   the   work 

adapted  to  such  a  procedure. 
III.  The  work  of  the  student  when  supervised  study  is  under  way. 

1.  Reading  the  text  and  reference  books. 

2.  Memorizing    material     specifically    designated    as     worth 

remembering. 

3.  Filling  in  outline  maps,  making  diagrams  and  graphs,  or- 

ganizing his  ideas,  outlining  the  text  and  reference  ma- 
terial, writing  exercises  in  the  form  of  summaries,  stories, 
short  themes,  and  synopses,  and  revising  work  demanding 
revision. 

4.  Applying  the  directions  and  rules  for  studying  history  formu- 

lated for  his  class. 

Other  things  not  included  in  this  outline  will  occur  to  the 
wide-awake  teacher  as  the  supervised-study  work  proceeds  from 
day  to  day.  No  single  outline  can  give  all  that  any  particular 
teacher  and  class  will  do.  In  fact,  a  stereotyped  plan  at  this 
stage  of  the  supervised-study-in-history  movement  might  do 
more  harm  than  good.  Circumstances  ofttimes  control  one's 
method  of  procedure  in  doing  any  piece  of  work.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  teachers  are  often  helped  by  knowing  how  others  would 
do  a  particular  piece  of  work.  It  is  with  this  idea  in  mind  that 
the  two  outlines  of  procedure  in  supervised  history  study  are 
presented.  The  second  one  is  proposed  with  the  idea  that  the 
teacher  will  have  a  definite  amount  of  time  each  day  to  devote 
to  supervising  the  individual  members  of  his  classes  while  they 
are  preparing  their  work.  The  exact  amount  of  time  that  he 
will  have  for  this  work  is  a  maher  not  usually  within  his  control. 
This  is  an  administrative  problem  which  is  predetermined  by 
the  general  plan  for  supervised  study  used  in  the  school.  If  the 
double-period  plan,  the  divided-period  plan,  or  the  study-coach 
plan  is  in  use,  the  scheme  outlined  above  can  be  used  with 


TEACHING  PUPILS   TO   STUDY  HISTORY      47 

certain  modifications  to  fit  local  conditions ;  on  the  other  hand, 
if  either  the  general  study-hall  plan,  the  weekly  supervised- 
study  plan,  the  stated-conference  plan,  the  delayed-group  plan, 
or  the  printed-directions-for-study  plan  is  used,  the  outline  will 
be  of  little  or  no  service.  In  case  such  makeshift  plans  for 
supervised  study  as  these  last  mentioned  ones  are  used,  the 
history  teacher  will  have  to  be  satisfied  with  meager  results,  for 
which  he  will  not  be  wholly  responsible. 

ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 

Allen,  I.  M.  "  Experiments  in  Supervised  Study,"  School  Review,  XXV 
(1917),  398  ff. 

Armstrong,  R.  D.  "Some  Aspects  of  Supervised  Study  in  History ,'\ 
History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VIII  (1917),  52  ff. 

Freeman,  F.  N.  The  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches,  chap.  vii. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1916. 

Giles,  F.  M.  "Investigation  of  Study-Habits  of  High-School  Pupils," 
School  Revieiv,  XXII  (1914),  478  ff. 

Hall-Quest.   Supervised  Study,  chap.  x.  The  Macmillan  Company,  1916. 

Johnson,  N.  C.  "Habits  of  Work  and  Methods  of  Study  of  High- 
School  Pupils  in  Some  Cities  of  Indiana,"  School  Review,  VII 
(1899),  257  ff. 

JuDD,  C.  H.  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chap.  xvii.  Ginn 
and  Company,  191 5. 

KiTSON,  H.  D.  How  to  use  your  Mind,  chap.  iv.  J.  B.  Lippincott  -Com- 
pany, 1 91 6. 

Knight,  G.  W.  "How  to  study  History,"  Ohio  Educational  Monthly, 
LXV  (1916),  587  ff. 

Merriman,  E.  D.  "Technique  of  Supervised  Study,"  School  Review, 
XXVI  (1918),  35  ff. 

Reavis,  W.  C.  "The  Importance  of  a  Study-Program  for  High-School 
Pupils,"   School  Review, 'Kiyi  {icfii),  7,()^  a. 

RiCKARD,  G.  E.  "High-School  Students'  Descriptions  of  their  Methods  of 
Study,"  School  Review,  XXII  (1914),  673  ff.;  Some  Aspects  of  the 
Supervision  of  Study.   M.  A.  Thesis,  The  University  of  Chicago,  191 6. 

Thorndyke,  Elizabeth.   "A  Lesson  in  History,"  Ohio  History  Teacher's 
.    Journal  (November,  1916),  pp.  iioff. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  How  ta  study  Effectively.  Public-School  Pub.  Co., 
Bloomington,  111.,  1916. 


CHAPTER  III 

SPECIAL  METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE:    LECTURE 
AND  TEXTBOOK 

Underlying  and  in  a  large  measure  determining  what  the 
history  teacher  does  in  the  recitation  and  in  the  supervised- 
study  periods  is  his  special  method  of  procedure.  In  fact,  one 
might  say  with  a  good  deal  of  truth  that  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure which  the  teacher  follows  from  day  to  day  is  one  of  the 
paramount  elements  upon  which  his  success  or  failure  depends. 
Not  that  there  is  but  one  method  to  use  on  all  occasions,  but 
a  variety,  the  best  way  to  do  a  particular  piece  of  work  being 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher.  To  assist  him  in  deciding 
just  what  method  to  use  in  teaching  the  various  phases  of  the 
history  course,  a  somewhat  elaborate  consideration  of  the  five 
special  methods  of  procedure  used  most  extensively  in  teaching 
high-school  history  is  included  in  this  and  the  following  chapter, 
attention  being  directed  first  to  a  discussion  of  the  lecture  and 
textbook  methods,  which  in  turn  is  followed  by  an  examination 
of  the  topical,  source,  and  problem  methods. 

The  Lecture  Method 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  two  methods  of  teaching 
history  in  most  common  use  today  are  the  ones  used  most  gen- 
erally in  the  infancy  of  instruction  in  history  in  this  country. 
Reference  is  made  here  to  the  lecture  and  textbook  methods. 
It  is  true  now,  as  it  was  in  tlfe^  early  forties  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  that  the  lecture  methodis  iitjjized  more  than  any  other 
single  one  in  historical  instruction  in  colleges  and  the  textbo.ok 
methodin  secondary  schools.  However,  before  the  modern  high 

48 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  49 

school  came  into  existence  history  was  taught  in  academies 
doing  work  of  a  secondary  grade,  and  the  lecture  method  was 
occasionally  employed.  In  his  study  of  the  teaching  of  history 
in  New  York,  W.  F.  Russell  cites  the  following  defense  of  the 
lecture  method  as  it  was  used  in  1839  ^^  the  Oneida  Institute: 

The  last  year  I  pursued  a  different  course.  I  prepared  lectures 
upon  the  several  subjects  belonging  to  mental  science,  and  delivered 
them  to  the  students  of  my  classroom.  The  time  allotted  to  this 
subject  was,  one  day,  consumed  by  the  lecture ;  on  the  next  day 
a  recitation  was  had  upon  the  subject  and  the  matter  of  the  lecture. 
In  this  way  we  proceeded,  till  with  a  good  degree  of  thoroughness 
and  success,  we  disposed  of  the  topics  commonly  attended  to  in 
this  department  of  study.  In  the  same  way  instruction  was  given 
in  .  .  .  political  economy  and  the  science  of  government. 

As  an  instructor,  I  suppose  my  business  is  mainly  to  impart  an 
impulse,  and  to  afford  guidance.  Adherence  to  the  text-book  seems 
to  me  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  object  I  am  bound  to  promote  in  both 
respects.  An  instructor  is  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  acquainted 
with  what  he  undertakes  to  teach  ;  to  have  put  himself  in  possession 
of  what  he  offers  to  impart.  Will  he  not  be  likely  to  feel  a  livelier 
interest  in  his  work  and  to  impress  himself  more  deeply  and  perma- 
nently on  his  pupils,  if  he  is  permitted  and  encouraged  to  express 
his  own  thoughts  in  his  own  way,  than  if  he  is  required  or  expected 
to  repeat  the  sayings  of  another?  Besides,  if  he  is  much  given  to 
observation  and  reflection,  he  may  often  find  occasion  to  differ  from 
any  of  our  various  text-books.  If  he  should  agree  with  them  in  the 
main  principles  and  leading  doctrines  which  they  maintain,  he  may 
prefer  other  methods  and  illustrations.  .  .  .  The  text-book  can 
hardly  fail  to  be  in  the  way  of  an  instructor  who  is  at  all  given 
to  thinking.  ...  He  will  now  find  it  necessary  to  spend  time  in 
removing  rubbish,  and  now  in  filling  up  a  chasm ;  and  amid  criti- 
cisms and  corrections  and  supplements  the  student  all  raw  and  un- 
practiced  will  lose  himself.^ 

In  spite  of  this  splendid  defense  of  the  use  of  the  lecture 

method  in  the  secondary  school,  there  is  a  number  of  seemingly 
*  I 

1  "  Early  Methods  in  teaching  History  in  Secondary  Schools,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VI,  15. 


50  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

unanswerable  objections  to  its  use  as  the  method  of  teaching 
high-school  history  rather  than  a  method.  Chief  among  ttese 
objections  are: 

1.  It  fails  to  develop  initiative  in  the  student. 

2.  It  substitutes  the  interpretation  of  the  individual  teacher 
for  that  of  the  textbook  writer  who  in  most  cases  knows  much 
more  about  the  subject. 

3.  It  gives  the  teacher  much  more  time  than  he  should  have 
in  a  given  number  of  recitation  periods. 

4.  It  robs  the  students  of  the  prerogative  of  expressing 
themselves  about  things  which  they  have  read.  In  other  words, 
it  robs  them  of  recitation  time  legitimately  theirs. 

5.  It  violates  one  of  the  most  fundamental  principles  of 
secondary  instruction;  namely,  that  education  is  a  developing 
process.  The  lecture,  or,  as  someone  has  called  it,  the  funnel 
method  of  instruction,  places  the  emphasis  on  pouring  in  rather 
than  drawing  out. 

6.  It  makes  the  subject  rather  than  the  student  the  center 
of  gravity.  Through  its  constant  use,  history  comes  to  be 
taught  for  the  sake  of  history  rather  than  for  the  sake  of  the 
pupil. 

In  spite  of  these  fundamental  objections  to  the  use  of  the 
lecture  method  in  high-school  history  instruction,  there  are 
modes  of  utilizing  it  which  if  not  carried  to  an  excess  are 
destined  to  produce  good  results.  The  writer  has  observed  four 
distinct  ways  of  using  the  method,  not  all  of  which,  however, 
can  be  defended.  In  a  class  in  United  States  history  in  one  of 
the  largest  and  best-known  high  schools  of  the  Middle  West, 
he  saw  a  teacher  employing  the  method  in  the  form  of  a  series 
of  exercises  in  dictation.  In  this  particular  instance  a  class  of 
some  twenty  red-blooded  and  wide-awake  boys  were  spending 
the  recitation  time  in  copying  word  by  word  a  dictated  lecture 
on  slavery  that  the  teacher  had  written.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  such  a  time-killing  use  of  the  lecture  method  has  nothing 
whatever  in  its  favor. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  51 

There  are,  however,  occasional  utilizations  of  the  method  to 
serve  specific  purposes  which  can  be  defended./.  Suppose  the 
teacher  wishes  to  give  the  pupils  training  in  note-taking  on 
lectures  and  reports.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  do  this  is  for 
him  carefully  to  prepare  a  well-organized  lecture  on  some  topic 
connected  with  the  daily  history  work  and  to  deliver  it  to  the 
class  and  require  each  member  to  take  notes  on  it^^nother 
legitimate  use  which  can  be  made  of  the  lecture  is  to  give  the 
pupils_a  perspective  view  of  the  entire  course  or  of_a_2^.^^^^^ 
movement,  such  as  the  Reformation,  the  French  Revolution,  or 
of  an  interval  of  the  history  of  the  United  States,  for  example, 
the  period  since  the  Civil  War.  Since  ready-made  perspective 
views  of  these  and  similar  units  of  instruction  are  not  always 
accessible  to  the  students,  the  practical  thing  for  the  teacher 
to  do  is  to  present  them  in  the  form  of  a  lecture  or  a  story. 

An  adaptation  of  the  traditional  college  lecture  method  to 
high-school  students  is  in  some  quarters  defended a^One  such 
adaptation  provides  for  dividing  the  recitation  period  into  two 
approximately  equal  parts ^  In  the  second  part  of  the  period 
the  instructor  tells  the  story  of  the  advance  lesson  and  gives  an 
assignment  of  reading  to  cover  it.  This  story  does  not  aim  to 
give  all  the  details ;  it  is  rather  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
entire  lesson  unit  which  the  teacher  expects  to  discuss  with  the 
class  in  the  first  part  of  the  recitation  the  following  day. 
Another  way  of  stating  what  the  teacher  does  in  this  part  of  the 
period  is  to  say  that  he  elaborates  in  considerable  detail  the 
assignment  of  the  next  day's  work.  The  purpose  of  this  elabora- 
tion is  to  give  the  pupils  an  overview  of  the  unit  of  instruction 
on  which  they  are  asked  to  prepare  and  recite  the  following  day. 
The  formal  reciting  is  to  be  done  during  the  first  part  of  the 
period,  and  should  include  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  material 
covered  the  previous  day  in  the  lecture.  Drilling  and  testing  also 
come  in  this  part  of  the  period  where  and  when  they  are  needed.^ 

^  Morehouse,  "  Some  Criticisms  of  the  Usual  Form  of  the  History 
Recitations,"  School  and  Home  Education^  XXXIV,  144. 


52  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

The  fourth  and  last  use  of  the  lecture  method  in  instruction 
in  high-school  history  to  be  considered  here  is  the  case  in  which 
yf  the  teacher  talks  during  the  entire  class  period,  the  pupils  taking 
notes  and  subsequently  reading  in  books  about  the  material 
presented  in  thejjscture.  During  his  lecture  the  teacher  uses 
pictures,  charts,  maps,  and  source  extracts ;  in  fact,  everything 
at  his  command  to  make  concrete  the  particular  subject  he  is 
presenting.  Tests  are  given  from  time  to  time  to  determine  the 
progress  the  pupils  are  making.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  this 
use  of  the  method  one  has  oral  instruction  reverting  to  its 
ancestral  type,  the  lecture  method  pure  and  unadulterated. 
A  constant  use  of, the  method  in  this  form  has  but  little  in 
its  favor. 

In  spite  of  the  existing  fact  that  the  lecture  method  in  teaching 
high-school  history  is  employed  in  one  or  even  all  of  the  fore- 
going forms,  most  teachers  agree  that  it  should  not  be  the 
method.  A  better  way  to  view  the  situation  is  to  consider  the 
lecture  as  a  device  rather  than  as  a  method.  By  this  is  meant 
that  it  is  a  way  to  do  a  certain  piece  of  work  which  cannot  be 
done  so  well  in  any  other  way.  If  the  teacher  gets  into  the  habit 
of  looking  upon  the  lecture  method  in  this  light,  it  becomes  an 
effective  tool  for  occasional  use  and  for  a  specific  purpose. 

The  Textbook  Method 

The  teacher  who  uses  the  textbook  method  in  teaching  history 
adheres  rather  rigidly  to  the  text  in  the  selection  and  .the  se- 
quence of  topics,  in  the  organization  of  the  field,  and  in  the 
emphasis  on  topics.  If  utilized  in  its  original  form  it  means 
following  the  textbook  chapter  by  chapter,  topic  by  topic,  and 
page  by  page.  Assignments  arejmade  in  terms  of  chapters  and 
pages  in  the  exact  order  presented  by  the  author.  The  teacher 
is  a  hearer  of  lessons,  and  the  individual  who  can  most  nearly 
reproduce  the  exact  words  of  the  text  is  a  star  pupil.  While 
this  memoriter-like  use  of  the  method  is  quite  out  of  date  now, 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  53 

it  nevertheless  was  looked  upon  with  considerable  favor  in  the 
early  days  of  history  teaching  in  this  country.  For  example, 
C.  A.  Goodrich,  in  his  History  of  the  United  States,  published 
in  1822,  gave  the  following  suggestions  to  the  teacher : 

1.  The  general  division  should  be  first  very  thoroughly  committed 
to  memory. 

2.  That  portion  of  the  work  which  is  in  large  type  embraces  the 
leading  subjects  of  history,  and  should  be  committed  to  memory 
by  the  pupil.  That  part  which  is  in  smaller  type  should  be  carefully 
perused. 

3.  It  is  recommended  to  the  teachers  not  to  make  a  severe  ex- 
amination of  the  pupil  until  a  second  or  third  time  going  through  the 
book.  This  should  be  more  particularly  observed  in  regard  to 
young  and  backward  pupils.^ 

This  rote  work,  as  recommended  by  such  a  popular  textbook 
writer  as  Goodrich  (150,000  copies  of  whose  text  were  said  to 
have  been  sold  before  1834  and  500,000  before  1870^),  was 
also  favored  by  the  teachers  themselves.  For  example,  in  de- 
scribing the  method  used  in  teaching  history  in  1840  in  the 
Plattsburg  Academy,  the  reporter  said-: 

We  require  to  be  committed  to  memory  exactly  in  the  language 
of  the  textbook.  We  think  that  by  that  course  we  not  only  secure 
as  good  or  better  understanding  of  the  principles  required  to  be 
learned  as  is  obtained  by  leaving  pupils  to  express  the  idea  in  their 
own  language,  but  we  also  secure  a  habit  of  precision  and  accuracy 
of  language,  which  the  other  system  tends  rather  to  destroy.^ 

To  this  formal  rote  work  or  memoriter  system  of  instruc- 
tion there  appeared  early  in  the  teaching  of  history  in  this 
country  certain  objectors.  There  were  two  classes  of  these  re- 
formers, the  one  believing  in  a  modified  form  of  rote  work,  the 
other  tabooing  such  work  altogether.  The  view  of  those  believ- 
ing in  rote  work  in  a  modified  form  was  well  expressed  in  a 
report  made  in  1837  by  the  principal  of  the  Troy  Female 

1  Quoted  by  Russell  in  The  Early  Teaching  of  HisioTy,  p.  20. 

2  Ibid.  3  Ibid.  p.  22. 


54  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Academy.    On  this  particular  subject  the  report  commented 
in  the  following  interesting  and  concrete  manner : 

There  are  certain  subjects  of  study,  which  must,  of  course,  be 
learned  memoriter.  .  .  .  But  in  such  subjects  as  history,  .  .  .  etc., 
the  method  of  requiring  a  few  sentences  to  be  repeated  by  rote,  is 
wholly  absurd.  .  .  .  The  teacher's  first  business  is  to  make  his 
pupils  understand  the  subject,  etc.  .  .  .  When  the  author's  own 
clue  to  the  subject  is  once  fairly  obtained,  fluency  of  speech  will 
follow,  and  the  pupil  of  taste  will  rarely  fail  of  committing  to 
memory  the  finest  passages  of  the  finest  writers,  and  we  consider 
that  taste  and  style  are  both  improved  in  the  exercise.  Such  a  pupil 
may  be  said  by  the  ignorant  to  recite  memoriter;  but  the  better 
informed  perceive  by  the  eye,  intonation,  and  the  emphasis,  that 
the  words  used  stand  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  as  signs  of  ideas, 
which  he  has  by  study,  made  his  own.^ 

The  view  of  those  believing  in  no  rote  work  in  history  teach- 
ing was  well  summarized  in  a  report  from  the  Rochester  Col- 
legiate Institute  in  1849  in  reply  to  a  questionnaire  on  the 
subject.   A  part  of  this  report  read  as  follows: 

But  in  the  teaching  of  history,  .  .  .  etc.,  what  demand  ought  to 
be  made  upon  the  memory  of  the  pupil  ?  Shall  the  pupil  be  required 
to  commit  the  whole  lesson  to  memory  ?  By  practice  students  can 
be  brought  to  recite  pages  memoriter  at  a  time ;  but  will  they  long 
retain  the  knowledge  thus  acquired?  All  experience,  except  in  a 
few  very  uncommon  cases,  replied  in  the  negative. 

A  far  better  method  than  this  is,  so  to  study  the  lesson  that  the 
pupil  may  be  able  to  give  the  facts,  thoughts,  speculations,  in  his 
own  language,  and  in  the  language  which  is  far  removed  from  that 
of  the  author,  provided  it  is  only  correct  and  precise.  This  involves 
what  is  called  an  analysis  of  the  textbook.  But  analysis  is  ever  a 
profitable  method  of  study.  By  practice  it  becomes  easier  than 
mere  learning  memoriter,  and  will  abide  longer  in  the  memory. 
True,  the  demand  on  the  teacher  is  greater,  for  he  must  himself 
know  the  author,  in  order  to  be  able  to  hear  an  analysis  of  the 
lesson  and  know  its  correctness  or  the  contrary.^ 

1  Russell,  The  Early  Teaching  of  Histoiy,  p.  21.  2  jbij  p  22. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  55 

The  views  relative  to  the  use  of  the  textbook  in  the  teaching 
of  history  presented  above  had  their  champions  throughout  the 
nineteenth  century.  Gradually,  however,  the  pure-rote-work 
supporters  became  fewer  and  fewer,  and  in  time  were  dubbed 
old-fashioned,  formal,  and  dry.  Even  the  compromisers  had  to 
surrender  to  the  no-rote- work  supporters.  As  early  as  1878  the 
following  statement  appeared  in  the  preface  of  a  much-used 
history  of  the  United  States  : 

The  days  of  assigning  lessons  by  the  page  and  of  listening  to 
memoriter  recitations  (textbook  in  hand,  to  insure  a  verbatim 
repetition  of  the  author's  language)  are  fast  passing  away.  The 
methods  of  the  time  demand  that  teachers  shall  actually  teach, 
and  that  recitations  shall  be  tests  of  the  pupil's  real  grasp  of  the 
subject  under  consideration.^ 

This  quotation  should  not  convey  the  idea  that  assigning 
history  lessons  page  by  page  was  passing  so  rapidly  in  1878  as 
soon  to  disappear  altogether.  There  remained  in  this  country 
long  after  this  date  teachers  who  assigned  lessons  page  by  page 
and  listened  with  textbook  in  hand  to  near-memoriter  recita- 
tions. The  writer  himself  has  observed  history  recitations  in 
which  the  exact  words  of  the  author  were  repeated  by  the 
students  in  reciting.  In  view  of  these  well-known  facts,  and 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  most  history  teachers  in  junior  and 
senior  high  schools  will  base  their  work  mainly  on  a  textbook 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  it  seems  worth  while  to  examine  the 
textbook  method  in  some  detail  in  order  to  see  how  it  can  be 
used  most  effectively.  Let  us  begin  our  examination  by  first 
considering  some  things  in  favor  of  the  much-abused  textbook 
in  history. 

There  are  at  least  four  legitimate  claims  to  be  made  for  the 
traditional  textbook  in  history.  Briefly  summarized  they  are 
(i)  a  textbook  in  history  gives  the  teacher  an  outline  of 
the  work,  a  core,  a  backbone;    (2)  the  material  in  the  text 

1  Berard,  History  of  the  United  States^  revised  by  C.  E.  Bush  (Philadelphia, 
1878),  p.  3. 


56  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

furnishes  the  basis  for  a  unified  discussion ;  (3)  with  a  text  in 
the  hands  of  each  member  of  the  class  the  teacher  is  assured 
.  of  a  certain  amount  of  material  organized  around  specific 
topics ;  (4)  regular,  definite,  and  systematic  assignments  can 
be  made  with  a  text  as  the  basis. 

,  Of  course  there  are  many  history  teachers  who  do  not  need  a 
ready-made  outline  such  as  the  text  provides.  While  granting 
this  fact,  however,  it  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  is, 
unfortunately,  a  large  number  of  people  attempting  to  teach 
history  who  are  unprepared  to  make  a  meritorious  outline.  So, 
for  the  good  of  the  cause  of  history  teaching  in  junior  and 
senior  high  schools,  it  is  a  great  advantage  for  the  inadequately 
equipped  teacher  to  have  the  textbook  to  guide  him.  Indeed, 
the  teacher  who  is  prepared  to  make  an  outline  absolutely 
independent  of  the  textbook  should  not  be  encouraged  to  do  so 
as  long  as  the  pupils  buy  one  book  and  use  it  as  a  text.  In 
order  that  he  may  get  the  unity  desired  in  the  recitation  the 
teacher's  outline  for  daily  use  should  be  actually  identified  by 
the  pupils  in  the  text  they  use.  When  every  member  of  the 
class  has  read,  in  following  a  guidance  outline  previously  given 
by  the  teacher,  a  definite  amount  of  exactly  the  same  material, 
the  teacher  has  a  basis  for  unified  work  which  cannot  be  secured 
when  each  member  reads  a  different  discussion  of  the  topic 
under  consideration.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  text,  good  or 
bad,  furnishes  a  basis  for  applying  one  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples governing  a  good  recitation  in  history,  namely,  unity. 
.  To  assure  commendable  work  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  daily 

^  assignments  must  be  regularly,  definitely,  and  systematically 
made  and  must  center  around  well-organized  topics.  A  good 
text  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  is  a  great  aid  in  securing  regu- 
larity, definiteness,  and  systefm  in  assignment-making.  The 
old-time  page-by-page  assignment  did  these  very  things.  High- 
school  students  like  to  know  exactly  what  is  expected  of  them. 
When  they  are  directed  to  read  and  outline  a  fixed  number  of 
pages  in  their  text,  there  seems  little  cause  for  misunderstanding. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  57 

While  this  is  not  the  best  form  for  an  assignment  to  take, 
it  does,  if  used,  assure  the  teacher  of  one  of  the  elements  of  a 
good  assignment,  definiteness*;  and  the  fact  that  the  material 
in  these  pages  is  perchance  organized  by  the  author  around  one 
big  topic  makes  it  possible  for  the  pupils  to  outline  it. 

The  foregoing  discussion  of  the  advantages  of  a  textbook  in 
high-school  history  teaching  becomes  more  practical  when 
viewed  in  connection  with  the  other  side  of  the  problem — the 
disadvantages,  or,  better,  the  defects  in  the  history  text  which 
must  be  overcome  by  the  teacher  in  using  the  textbook  method. 
Chief  among  these  defects  are  (i)  no  one  text  seems  able  to  n/ 
give  an  adequate  treatment  of  all  of  the  most  important  topics ; 
(2)  no  text  can  set  up  a  sufficient  number  of  historical  problems 
and  give  suggestions  for  their  thoughtful  and  progressive  solu- 
tion;  (3)  a  textbook  is  of  necessity  what  it  purports  to  be,  a 
text,  dealing  primarily  in  generalizations  and  statements  to  be 
elaborated  and  made  concrete ;  (4)  the  frequent  use  of  such 
abstract  terms  as  society,  sovereignty,  civilization,  spiritual, 
secular,  national,  democracy,  and  secularization  seems  unavoid- 
able to  some  writers  of  texts;  (5)  a  logical  rather  than  a 
teaching  organization  is  followed  in  most  texts.  In  other  words, 
the  subject  is  of  more  importance  to  the  author  than  the  pupils 
who  are  to  use  his  book. 

Some  elaboration  seems  necessary  to  clarify  certain  of  these 
seemingly  unpreventable  defects  in  history  textbooks.  As 
to  the  first  one,  it  should  be  added  that  few  Or  no  texts  ever 
agree  on  the  topics  of  most  importance  in  any  field  of  high- 
school  history.  Furthermore,  tradition,  coupled  with  a  rather 
fixed  price  beyond  which  publishers  are  unwilling  to  go  be- 
cause of  the  dictates  of  a  public  accustomed  to  buying  texts  in 
history  at  a  more  or  less  standardized  price,  confines  the  author 
to  a  definite  number  of  pages.  Hence  there  is  left  but  one  of 
two  things  for  him  to  do.  He  must  either  condense  his  discus- 
sion of  each  topic  treated  and  include  a  great  many  topics,  or 
reduce  the  number  of  topics  and  elaborate  the  discussion  of 


S8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

each.  The  author  usually  takes  the  first  of  these  alternatives 
and  leaves  to  the  teacher  the  problem  of  amplifying  his  generali- 
zations and  making  them  concrete  with  illustrative  materials. 

Important  as  it  is  for  the  teacher  to  know  the  advantages  of 
a  textbook  as  well  as  its  imperfections,  the  fact  remains  that  the 
proper  use  of  a  text  in  history,  in  securing  all  the  advantages 
claimed  for  it  and  in  overcoming  the  shortcomings  charged 
against  it,  is  with  most  junior  and  senior  high-school  history 
teachers  the  fundamental  problem  to  be  solved.  This  is  true 
because  textbook  lessons  in  history  are  almost  everywhere  the 
rule  in  this  country.  We  are  a  textbook-using  people,  and 
there  are  no  indications  that  we  shall  change  our  system  in 
the  near  future,  hence  the  best  way  to  use  the  textbook  in 
teaching  in  high  schools  rightly  assumes  a  place  of  great 
importance  in  the  thinking  and  planning  of  progressive  history 
teachers. 

Professor  Johnson,  in  his  admirable  chapter  on  "  The  Use  of 
Textbooks"  in  his  Teaching  of  History  in  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools,^  summarizes  three  modes  of  procedure  in 
making  the  textbook  in  history  the  chief  instrument  in  training 
for  independent  study,  a  very  important  goal  for  all  instruction 
in  the  subject.  Briefly  stated  they  are :  ( i )  Pupils  are  sent 
to  the  textbook  without  preliminary  suggestions  and  directions 
and  asked  to  read  a  certain  number  of  pages.  On  coming  to 
the  recitation  they  are  questioned  sharply  on  what  they  have 
read.  They  are  expected  to  know  all  the  points  made  by  the 
author  in  the  matter  read,  for  they  are  never  sure  just  what 
ones  the  teacher  will  demand  in  the  form  of  answers  to  his 
questions.  (2)  Besides  being  asked  to  read  a  prescribed  number 
of  pages  pupils  are  required  to  analyze  what  they  read  and 
bring  to  the  class  the  result  of  their  work  in  the  form  of  a 
written  outline.  At  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  one  pupil 
places  his  outline  on  the  board.  Other  pupils  criticize  it 
and  make  suggestions  as  to  changes ;  the  teacher  also  adds  a 

1  Chap.  xii. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  59 

favorable  or  an  adverse  criticism  now  and  then — all  resulting  in 
an  outline  built  on  the  cooperative  plan.  All  pupils  now  copy 
the  cooperatively  constructed  outline  in  their  notebooks  and  it 
is  made  the  basis  of  subsequent  work  with  the  textbook  material 
on  which  it  is  based.  (3)  During  some  preliminary  practice  les- 
sons the  pupils  are  taught  with  books  open  how  to  study  and 
how  to  learn  a  lesson.  In  these  practice  lessons  they  are  asked 
to  notice  the  paragraph  headings,  to  read  the  paragraph  to  find 
the  different  things  mentioned,  to  name  in  three  or  four  words 
each  of  these  things  and  enter  them  in  their  notebooks,  to  relate 
the  paragraph  heading  to  the  subject  of  the  chapter,  and  so  on, 
until  they  have  analyzed  the  paragraph,  named  its  separate 
parts,  pointed  out  relations,  and  classified  the  material — all 
ending  in  an  outline  of  the  paragraph.  Each  paragraph  in  the 
lesson  is  treated  similarly,  and  when  all  are  outlined  each  pupil 
is  expected  to  sum  up  the  entire  lesson  with  the  outline  before 
him,  then,  laying  it  aside,  to  sum  up  again  the  whole  lesson. 
After  eight  or  ten  such  lessons  the  class  is  supposed  to  be  able 
to  do  the  work  alone,  and  the  recitation  will  resolve  itself  into 
having  uninterrupted  reports  on  the  work  assigned.  The  whole 
lesson  may  be  recited  two,  three,  or  four  times  by  different 
members  of  the  class,  after  which  relations  are  traced,  compari- 
sons are  made,  questions  are  asked,  differences  and  resemblances 
are  recognized,  inferences  are  drawn,  and  applications  are 
made ;  the  ideal  of  the  whole  procedure  being  to  make  the 
pupils  so  adept  in  the  work  that  they  can  in  a  single  reading 
learn  what  the  book  contains  on  a  given  subject. 

It  seems  quite  unnecessary  to  point  out  the  relative  merits  of 
the  foregoing  modes  of  procedure  in  using  the  textbook  in  his- 
tory teaching.  Generally  speaking,  they  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  merit,  which  order  one  might  designate  by^  the  terms 
"good,"  "better,"  "best."  The  important  point  in  this  con- 
nection is  that  there  are  other  modes  of  procedure  which  Pro- 
fessor Johnson  himself  points  out  and  some  which  he  does  not 
mention.      Attention  here  will  be  given  to  what  might  be 


6o  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

distinctly  designated  as  a  fourth  method,  the  general  outline  of 
which  follows,  with  directions  for  its  use. 

Before  beginning  the  work  with  a  class,  let  us  say,  in  United 
States  history,  the  teacher  decides  upon  the  general  organization 
of  the  field  that  he  is  going  to  use  for  teaching  purposes.  Now, 
with  this  general  organization  as  a  guide,  he  outlines  the  entire 
field,  making  the  text  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  the  basis  for 
his  outline.  This  last  statement  means  that  the  pupils  will  be 
able  to  identify  the  points  in  the  outline  in  the  text  they  are 
using.  A  good  outline  will,  of  course,  contain  items  not  found 
in  the  text  at  all,  which  is  one  of  the  strong  features  of  the 
plan  under  discussion. 

The  outline  in  question  can  be  one  of  the  two  types  men- 
tioned below  or  it  may  combine  both  types.  For  the  teacher's 
own  use  it  can  be  of  the  informational  type  and  for  the  use 
of  the  pupils  of  the  guidance  type.  Or,  if  the  teacher  prefers 
that  the  pupils  have  a  duplicate  of  his  own  outline,  he  can  use 
either  of  these  types,  the  preference  being  in  favor  of  the 
guidance  outline  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil.  An  example  of 
each  of  these  types  follows : 


AN  INFORMATIONAL  OUTLINE  OF  COLONIAL 
INDUSTRIES  IN  ABOUT  1763 

I.  Agriculture. 

1.  Chief  problems  presented  were  : 

a.  Qualities  of  native  plants  had  to  be  determined  by  ex- 

perience. 

b.  European  seed  had  to  be  adapted  to  new  soils  and  a  new 

climate. 

2.  Experimental  work  lasted  a  century  and  a  half. 

3.  Farm  implements  were  rude  and  scarce. 

4.  Farming  processes  were  wasteful. 

II.  Lumbering  and  the  manufacture  of  other  forest  products. 
I.  Forests  utilized  as  a  source  of  exports  easily  procured. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  6 1 

2.  Chief  products  were  shingles  and  timbers  for  masts,  spars, 

and  buildings. 

3.  Much  lumber  and  many  shingles  exported  to  West  Indies, 

Portugal,  and  Spain. 

4.  Value  of  exports  of  lumber  in  1770  about  $775,000. 

5.  Naval  stores  such  as  tar,  pitch,  rosin,  turpentine,  masts,  and 

bowsprits  made  in  quantities  and  shipped  to  England 
($175,000  annually  around  1770). 

6.  Forest  products  such  as  potash  and  oak  bark  sent  to  England 

to  value  of  about  $290,000  annually  around  1770. 
III.  Fishing. 

1.  Leading  fisheries  were  cod,  mackerel,  and  whale. 

2.  Amounted  to  about  $225,000  a  year  in  New  England  in  most 

of  1 8th  century. 
IV.  Fur  trade. 

1.  Carried  on  in  all  the  colonies. 

2.  Export  of  furs  and  peltries  from  all  the  colonies  in  about 

1770  around  $670,000. 
V.  Household  industries. 

1.  Flourished  in  all  the  colonies  north  of  Maryland  and  in  the 

back  country  of  Southern  colonies. 

2.  Many  farms,  plantations,  and  villages  were  economically 

independent. 

3.  Chief  industries  were  soap-making  and  candle-making,  spin- 

ning, weaving,  hat-making,  shoemaking,  dressing  leather, 
blacksmithing,  and  carpentry. 
VI.  Manufacturing  outside  of  the  home. 

1.  Restricted  and  forbidden  by  England. 

2.  Hindered  further  by  lack  of  capital  and  scarcity  of  labor. 

3.  Chief  articles  for  home  consumption  were : 

a.  From  iron:   iron  implements,  household  utensils,  tools, 

and  hardware. 

b.  From  other  materials  :  leather  goods,  wagons,  brass,  and 

copperware,   tinware,  bricks,   tiles,   pottery,   cordage, 
twine,  sailcloth,  Uquors,  salt,  and  hats. 


62  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

A    GUIDANCE   OUTLINE    OF    COLONIAL    INDUSTRIES    IN 
ABOUT  1763 

I.  Agriculture. 

1.  Chief  problems  presented. 

2.  Experimental  work. 

3.  Farm  implements. 

4.  Farming  processes. 

II.  The  manufacture  of  forest  products. 

1.  Lumbering, 

a.  Source  of  supply. 

b.  Chief  products. 

c.  Market  for. 

d.  Value  of  exports. 

2.  Naval  stores. 

a.  Chief  products. 

b.  Market  for. 

c.  Value  of  exports. 

3.  Other  forest  products. 

a.  List  of. 

b.  Market  for. 

c.  Value  of  exports. 
III.  Fishing. 

1.  Leading  fisheries. 

2.  Annual  output. 
IV.  Fur  trade. 

1.  Extent  of. 

2.  Value  of  exports. 
V.  Household  industries. 

1.  Where  they  flourished. 

2.  Effect  on  homes  and  plantations. 

3.  Chief  industries. 

VI.  Manufacturing  outside  of  the  home. 

1.  Restriction  on  by  England. 

2.  Other  Hindrances. 

3.  Chief  articles. 

a.  From  iron. 

b.  From  other  materials. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  63 

Now,  with  either  of  these  outlines  before  him,  preferably  the 
latter,  the  pupil  goes  to  his  text  and  masters  what  he  finds 
there  on  the  various  topics.  After  getting  what  his  text  has,  he 
turns  to  other  references  for  additional  information,  the  teacher 
in  making  the  assignment  having  previously  given  the  book  or 
books  with  the  exact  pages  containing  this  additional  material. 
On  coming  to  the  recitation  each  member  of  the  class  must  be 
able  to  contribute  something  on  the  majority  of  the  general 
topics  in  the  guidance  outline,  as  well  as  to  furnish  information 
not  contained  in  the  text.  In  order  to  get  the  material  before 
him  in  a  form  that  is  more  or  less  his  own,  each  student  should 
turn  the  guidance  outline  the  teacher  has  given  him  into  an 
informational  one  of  his  own  making.  A  good  way  for  him  to 
manage  this  is  to  put  the  guidance  outline  always  on  the  left 
page  of  his  permanent  notebook  and  use  the  opposite  page 
for  his  own  notes,  which  can  be  in  the  form  of  an  informational 
outline  if  he  so  desires.  Such  a  device  makes  it  possible  to 
add  information  given  in  the  class  which  the  student  did 
not  find  in  his  reading,  and  thus  to  utilize,  in  a  connected  and 
organized  form,  the  results  of  his  own  reading  and  of  the 
class  discussions. 

A  practical  application  of  this  method  of  using  the  textbook 
in  history  may  be  described  as  follows :  Spend  a  few  days,  or 
weeks,  if  necessary,  in  going  through  the  text  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupils  in  developing  and  establishing  the  general  divisions 
previously  decided  upon  by  the  teacher.  After  this  preliminary 
work  has  been  well  done,  the  first  division  of  the  field  can  be 
viewed  to  discover  in  a  general  way  what  the  text  contains  on 
it.  A  guidance  outline  of  this  unit  can  now  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  each  student,  attention  being  called  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  based  on  the  text.  Lessons  are  now  assigned  in  terms  of  the 
outline,  including  text  and  reference  materials.  Sometimes  a 
single  lesson  will  cover  ten  pages  in  the  text  and  sometimes 
three  or  perhaps  none  at  all.  On  finishing  his  preparation  in 
terms  of  the  guidance  outline  before  him,  the  student  comes  to 


64  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  recitation  ready  to  discuss  in  considerable  detail  the  major- 
ity of  the  points  in  it.  When  reference  material  is  accessible  but 
to  a  few  members  of  the  class  at  a  time,  reports  on  specially 
assigned  topics  can  be  relied  upon  to  supply  the  information 
called  for  in  the  outline  not  found  in  the  text.  The  recitation 
is  carried  on  in  terms  of  the  guidance  outline  by  the  simple 
announcement  of  topics  or  by  the  asking  of  questions  based 
upon  it,  preferably  the  former,  the  questioning  being  left  until 
each  pupil  has  had  his  say  on  the  topic  under  discussion.  Re- 
views are  also  carried  on  in  terms  of  the  outline.  An  informa- 
tional outline  of  his  own  making  might  be  memorized  with  profit 
by  the  pupil.  By  the  use  of  a  guidance  outline  in  the  manner  j 
described  above  the  teacher  can  solve  the  three  big  problems 
pertaining  to  the  use  of  a  text  in  high-school  history,  namely, 
the  problem  of  elimination,  the  problem  of  addition,  and  the 
problem  of  emphasis. 

Whatever  one  might  say  concerning  the  merits  and  demerits 
of  any  one  of  the  foregoing  modes  of  procedure  in  using  the 
textbook  in  teaching  history  in  junior  and  senior  high  schools, 
the  fact  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  is  probably  no  one 
method  which  should  be  used  in  each  of  the  six  years  repre- 
sented in  these  schools.  For  the  best  results  with  students  who 
pursue  history  work  for  two  or  more  years  in  the  junior  and 
an  equal  amount  of  time  in  the  senior  high  school  some  varia- 
tions should  be  made  in  the  method  of  using  the  textbook. 
Where  any  serious  consideration  is  given  to  this  matter  teachers 
of  history  and  heads  of  history  departments  in  these  schools 
will  finally  come  to  see  that  for  the  sake  of  the  students  as  well 
as  the  subject  of  history  some  scheme  must  be  worked  out 
which  will  assure  the  application  of  the  principle  ^f_progress 
within  the  subject.  By  this  is  meant  that  if  one  method  of 
procedure  in  using  the  text^iaok  has  been  employed  in  the  junior 
high-school  history  classes,  either  another  method  or  a  more 
advanced  application  of  the  same  method  should  be  used  in  the 
senior  high  school.    In  fact,  there  should  be  progress  from  year 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  65 

to  year  if  maximum  results  are  to  be  attained.  Using  the  pre- 
ceding four  modes  of  procedure  as  the  basis  for  a  scheme  which 
purports  to  apply  the  principle  of  progress,  one  might  construct 
a  general  plan  of  work  similar  to  the  one  below.  Of  course, 
if  a  teacher  knows  and  uses  other  methods  of  procedure  and 
can  work  them  into  a  scheme  which  will  insure  progress,  well 
and  good.  The  important  thing  in  this  connection  is  not  the 
scheme,  but  a  scheme — something  to  bring  order  out  of  existing 
disorder,  or  rather  no  order. 

GRADATION  IN  MODES  OF  PROCEDURE  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE 
TEXTBOOK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHING 

A.  Junior  High  School. 

I.  First  year  (Grade  VII).  A  method  not  described  above. 
Use  the  text  as  a  reading  book  largely.  Let  the  chief 
aims  be  training  in  reading  historical  literature  and 
arousing  interest  in  it.  Place  little  emphasis  on  informa- 
tion as  such,  but  much  emphasis  on  how  to  secure  knowl- 
edge from  books.  Recitations  should  be  very  informal, 
ample  opportunity  being  given  the  children  to  express 
their  opinion  of  what  they  read.  Read  books  other  than 
the  text  if  possible.  Let  the  chief  characteristic  of  the 
method  be  that  it  is  no  one  method,  but  rather  the  doing 
of  anything  with  the  text  that  will  encourage  the  children 
to  do  a  wide  range  of  reading  and  to  express  their  views 
freely  about  what  they  read.  Socialize  the  work 
in  every  possible  way.  Have  no  formal  examina- 
tions. Considerable  written  work  of  an  informal  char- 
acter can  be  done  in  connection  with  the  regular  work 
in  composition.  • 
II.  Second  year  (Grade  VIII).  Begin  by  going  straight  through 
the  text  to  establish  the  general  organization  for  teaching 
purposes  predetermined  by  the  teacher.  In  studjdng  each 
main  division  of  the  field  thus  established  use  the  first 
method  described  above  ^   to  obtain  a  preliminary  or 

1  P.  58. 


66  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

perspective  view.  A  free  and  not  a  rigid  use  is  meant 
here.  Simply  let  the  children  go  through  a  certain  amount 
of  the  text  from  day  to  day  and  discuss  informally  during 
the  recitation  period  what  they  read.  Reading  outside 
of  the  text  may  also  be  done.  In  going  over  the  division 
a  second  time  a  form  of  the  fourth  method  given  above 
could  be  used.  A  systematic  guidance  outHne  of  the 
main  divisions  should  be  given  the  children  from  day  to 
day  by  the  teacher,  the  textbook  to  be  the  basis  of  this 
outline.  Lessons  are  prepared,  reading  outside  the  text  is 
done,  recitations  are  conducted,  and  reviews  are  made 
in  terms  of  this  outline. 
III.  Third  year  (Grade  IX).  Begin  the  work  by  giving  the 
students  some  systematic  training  in  how  to  study  and 
how  to  learn  a  lesson.  With  books  open  let  them  do  all 
that  is  suggested  under  (3)  on  page  59.  After  a  certain 
amount  of  this  cooperative  work,  each  student  should 
do  some  independent  outlining.  This  will  give  an  oppor- 
tunity to  apply  the  training  previously  received  in  co- 
operative outlining.  Some  time  early  in  the  second  half 
of  the  year,  the  fourth  method  described  above  should  be 
introduced.^  At  the  end  of  this  year  the  pupils  should 
be  doing  in  an  elementary  way  practically  everything 
suggested  in  the  description  of  this  method. 
B.  Senior  High  School. 

I.  First  year  (Grade  X).  Begin  by  going  straight  through 
the  text,  establishing  the  large  divisions  of  the  field  pre- 
viously determined  by  the  teacher.  After  this  work  has 
been  well  done,  proceed  with  the  first  main  division  as 
suggested  for  Grade  VIII.  When  this  division  is  finished 
adopt  the  method  which  calls  for  cooperative  outlining 
and  continue  to  use  it  for  the  remainder  of  the  first 
semester.  Begin  the  second  semester  by  requiring  pupils 
to  analyze  what  they  read  and  to  bring  to  the  class  a 
written  outHne  o^their  readings.  After  a  few  weeks 
of  work  of  this  type  change  to  the  fourth  method  de- 
scribed in  some  detail  on  pages  60  ff.    At  the  end  of  this 

1  See  pp.  60  ff. 


LECTURE  AND  TEXTBOOK  METHODS  67 

year,  pupils  should  be  rather  efficient  in  outlining  and 
mastering  the  content  of  historical  material. 
II.  Second  year  (Grade  XI).  Begin  in  the  same  way  as  in 
Grades  VIII  and  X.  Continue  the  individual  and  the 
cooperative  outlining  long  enough  to  see  that  the 
pupils  understand  what  these  two  types  of  work  demand. 
In  due  time  change  to  the  method  used  in  the 
second  semester  of  Grade  X.  Administer  this  method 
in  as  advanced  a  form  as  the  subsequent  training  of  the 
pupils  and  material  equipment  of  the  history  department 
will  admit. 
III.  Third  year  (Grade  XII).  Duplicate  the  methods  used  in 
Grade  XI.  Attain  progression  by  demanding  and  secur- 
ing a  higher  type  of  work. 

If  those  in  charge  of  history  work  in  junior  and  senior  high 
schools  should  adopt  the  foregoing  scheme  or  a  similar  one — 
in  fact,  any  progressive  plan — a  great  deal  of  duplicated  effort 
would  be  saved.  At  the  same  time  the  pupils  who  pursue  the 
study  of  history  in  these  schools  would  be  assured  a  progression 
in  securing  historical  information,  through  the  reading  of  texts 
and  other  books,  that  never  can  be  attained  in  the  haphazard 
ways  in  which  they  are  usually  taken  through  their  courses  in 
history  at  the  present  time. 

Before  this  consideration  of  the  use  of  the  textbook  in 
teaching  history  is  concluded,  something  should  be  said  relative 
to  a  phase  of  the  work  not  included  in  the  discussion  thus  far, 
namely,  word  study.  Each  subject  in  the  curriculum  has  a 
peculiar  vocabulary  of  its  own.  In  few  subjects  are  the  words  of 
more  practical  value  in  later  life  than  those  found  in  the  social 
studies,  including  history.  Take,  for  example,  such  words  as 
politics,  constitution,  arbitration,  initiative,  referendum,  short- 
ballot,  economics,  democracy,  contraband,  law,  federal,  judicial, 
militarism,  executive,  legislation,  tariff,  demagogue,  Csesarism, 
league,  social,  municipal,  chivalry,  industrial,  institution,  diplo- 
macy, monopoly,  and  revolution.  Most  of  these  words  must 
be  a  part  of  every  person's  vocabulary  if  he  is  to  read  the  daily 


68  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

papers  and  weekly  and  monthly  magazines  understandingly  or 
converse  intelligently  on  the  common  topics  of  the  day. 

The  pupil  should  have  definite  training  in  spelling,  pronounc- 
ing, defining,  and  using  words  like  the  foregoing  which  appear 
in  his  daily  lessons.  A  list  of  such  words  should  be  kept  in  every 
course,  and  some  time  be  given  to  them  as  the  work  moves 
along.  All  sorts  of  contests  can  be  planned.  The  teacher  should 
realize  that  after  the  student  has  met  a  word  and  defined  it  on 
the  basis  of  its  ordinary  use  in  his  text,  the  only  thing  needed 
to  make  it  habitual  is  drill,  drill,  drill.  Not  enough  teachers  are 
convinced  of  the  importance  of  this  word  study.  It  is  certainly 
a  self-evident  fact  that  a  pupil  will  not  express  himself  with 
ease  and  force  on  any  historical  topic  unless  he  has  a  copious 
supply  of  meaningful  words  at  his  command.  It  is  the  teacher's 
business  to  see  that  he  not  only  acquires  this  vocabulary,  but 
that  he  also  has  much  practice  in  using  it. 

ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 

Johnson,  Henry.  The  Teaching  of  History,  chap,  xi,  "Textbooks  in 
History";  chap,  xii,  "The  Use  of  Textbooks."  The  Macmillan 
Company,  191 5.  ' 

Kelsey,  R.  W.    "The  Text-Book  Method,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine, 

V  (I9i4),i77ff. 

Lautz,  p.  G.  "Word-Study  in  History  Teaching,"  History  Teacher's 
Magazine,  VI  (igiS)?  220  ff. 

Morehouse,  Francis.  "Some  Criticisms  of  the  Usual  Form  of  History 
Recitations,"  School  and  Home  Education,  XXXIV  (1914) r  142  ff. 

Russell,  W.  F.  The  Early  Teaching  of  History  in  the  Secondary 
Schools  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts.  McKinley  Pub.  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  191S.  Reprinted  from  History  Teacher's  Magazine, 
V,  203-208,  311-318;  VI,  14-19,  44-52,  122-125. 

Sellery,  G.  C.  "The  Use  of  the  Textbook,"  History  Teacher's  Maga- 
zine, II  (1911),  219  ff.  - 

Tucker,  Milo  A.  "Modern  Methods  for  Teaching  History,"  Education, 
XX  (1899),  220  ff. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SPECIAL  METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE :     TOPICAL, 
SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM 

Three  special  methods  of  procedure  remain  to  be  discussed. 
Two  of  them  are  used  quite  extensively  in  present-day  his- 
tory instruction,  and  one  is  important  more  for  what  it  once 
attempted  to  do  than  what  it  is  now  doing.  The  first  two 
are  the  topical  and  the  problem  methods,  the  last  is  the 
source  method.  Since  the  topical  method  is  used  so  extensively 
attention  will  be  directed  to  it  first. 

The  Topical  Method 

Historically  speaking,  the  topical  method  in  teaching  history 
made  its  appearance  in  the  secondary  schools  of  this  country 
about  1885.  The  first  literature  on  its  use  in  schools  below 
the  college  seems  to  have  been  Professor  Albert  Bushnell 
Hart's  article  on  ^^How  to  teach  History  in  Secondary 
Schools,"  appearing  in  Academy  (Syracuse)  in  1887.^  In 
this  article  Professor  Hart  made  a  survey  of  the  teaching 
of  history  in  the  secondary  school  at  this  date.  He  found 
the  textbook  method  almost  universally  used.  There  were, 
however,  a  few  teachers  using  the  topical  method,  probably 
a  fourth  of  those  reporting.  Believing  as  he  did  at  the  time  in 
the  efficacy  of  the  topical  method,  Professor  Hart  took  occa- 
sion to  argue  in  its  favor.  Chief  among  the  advantages  he 
claimed  for  it  were  that  it  ( i )  teaches  the  pupil  to  examine  and 
use  books;  (2)  throws  upon  him  an  educating  responsibility 
of  choice;    (3)   leads  one  to  select  the  important  from  the 

1  Reprinted  in  Hart,  Studies  in  American  Education,  chap.  v. 
69 


70  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

unimportant ;  (4)  obliges  the  pupil  to  compare  and  collate 
authorities;  and  (5)  gives  the  pleasing  sense  of  discovery.^ 

The  practical  working-out  of  the  method  as  outlined  by 
Professor  Hart  in  his  article  contemplated  the  assigning  of 
a  topic  to  each  member  of  the  class,  his  idea  being  that  the 
topical  system  should  supersede  the  textbook  recitation  alto- 
gether. The  topics  were  to  be  selected  by  either  of  two 
methods.  One  was  to  divide  the  whole  field  to  be  covered  in 
a  particular  course  into  successive  topics,  and  then  have  all 
pupils  prepare  on  them,  the  recitation  in  this  case  being  held 
on  the  subject  and  not  on  material  in  any  one  book.  Where  no 
attempt  was  made  to  have  one  topic  succeed  another  in  chrono- 
logical sequence  the  following  system  was  recommended: 

Let  the  topics  be  given  out  in  groups :  a  set  of  geographical 
subjects ;  a  set  of  biographical  subjects ;  a  set  of  narratives  ;  a 
set  of  military  subjects  ;  and  so  on ;  out  of  each  group,  set  for 
each  pupil  his  own  individual  topic.  When  the  group  is  given 
out,  a  circular  of  directions  may  be  issued  or  put  on  the  board, 
meeting  the  questions  most  likely  to  be  asked  and  the  difficulties 
most  likely  to  arise  and  prescribing  a  form  in  which  the  answers 
are  to  be  returned.  Pupils  should  then  be  put  on  their  own 
resources ;  as  their  topics  are  all  different,  they  cannot  use  each 
other's  work ;  as  they  are  all  of  the  same  kind,  a  few  books  will 
suffice  for  their  sources,  and  the  teacher  can  more  easily  control 
the  work.2 

This  quotation  from  Professor  Hart's  article  written  about 
1887  is  an  excellent  example  of  what  the  leading  advocates 
of  the  method  at  that  time  considered  a  legitimate  way 
to  use  it.  Professor  Hart  and  his  followers  were  so  intent 
on  having  the  method  universally  adopted  in  the  secondary 
school  that  they  succeeded  in  getting  the  committee  on  his- 
tory, civil  government,  arid*  political  economy,  a  subcommittee 
working  under  the  general  direction  of  the  famous  Committee 
of  Ten,  to  adopt  a  recommendation  which  on  the  face  of  it 
required  the  use  of  the  topical  method.     For  example,  this 

1  Studies  in  American  Education^  p.  iii.  ^  Ibid.  p.  113. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    71 

committee  (reporting  in  1892)  recommended  that  two,  three, 
or  four  parallel  textbooks  be  used  at  a  time,  and  that  one 
whole  year  be  devoted  to  an  intensive  study  of  a  brief  period 
in  some  field  of  high-school  history,  such  as  American  history 
from  1760  to  1790.  The  chief  thing  of  interest  in  connection 
with  these  two  proposals  of  the  committee  is  the  subtle  scheme 
they  contained  for  the  substitution  of  the  topical  for  the 
textbook  method.  For  how  could  one  use  two,  three,  or  four 
parallel  texts  without  employing  some  form  of  the  topical 
method  ?  And  furthermore,  how  could  one,  after  declaring  the 
lecture  method  unsuitable  for  the  high-school  level  of  history 
instruction,  devote  a  year  of  intensive  study  to  one  brief 
period  of  history  in  the  secondary  school  without  using  the 
topical  method  ? 

On  the  topical  method  as  such  the  committee  had  consider- 
able to  say,  resolution  22  reading  "that  the  method  of  study 
by  topics  be  strongly  recommended,  as  tending^to  stimulate 
pupils  and  to  encourage  independence  of  judgment."^  To 
accomplish  these  ends  the  topical  method  was  to  be  used  in 
two  ways,  the  first  being  as  a  system  of  division  of  labor,  all 
the  topics  combined  covering  the  whole  ground  of  the  course. 
One  topic  was  assigned  to  each  student,  and  recitations  were 
held  upon  topics  calling  for  the  special  preparation  of  one 
student  on  each  topic.  The  second  use  of  the  method  con- 
templated a  study  of  sources,  the  idea  being  to  assign  each 
member  of  the  class  a  separate  topic,  for  independent  investi- 
gation based  on  original  materials.  This  last  use  finally  de- 
veloped into  the  source  method  proper  and  subsequently  secured 
quite  a  following.  The  first  use  has  come  down  to  us  as  the 
best  type  of  topical  method  in  high-school  history  teaching.^ 

A  continuation  of  the  history  of  the  topical  method  step  by 
step  down  to  the  present  would  add  little  to  the  practical 
phases  of  this  discussion.     It  should  be  said,  however,  that 

^  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  p.  195. 

2  Ibid.  "  Methods  of  Historical  Teaching,"  pp.  185  fe. 


72  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  impetus  given  the  movement  toward  topical  teaching  in 
history  by  the  foregoing  committee  resulted  in  its  wider  and 
wider  adoption  from  year  to  year,  until  it  finally  came  into 
almost  universal  use,  the  fact  being  that  it  is  now  one  of  the 
three  most  prevalently  used  methods.  In  a  study  ^  made  in  191 5 
it  was  found  that  116  out  of  135  history  teachers  were  using 
this  method  more  than  any  other.  The  advantages  claimed  for 
it  by  these  and  other  of  its  advocates  at  this  date  were : 

1.  Events  are  more  easily  learned  and  remembered,  because 
they  can  be  grouped  and  studied  in  their  logical  and  chrono- 
logical relations.  By  grouping  all  the  facts  about  one  topic 
and  considering  them  in  their  proper  relation  to  each  other, 
it  is  possible  to  get  a  connected  story  of  an  event  or  movement. 

2.  The  teaching  of  one  topic  in  a  certain  period  of  history 
facilitates  the  teaching  of  all  other  topics.  For  example,  sup- 
pose one  decides  to  use  the  following  general  topics  in  any 
given  period  of  high-school  history,  say,  the  history  of  the 
United  States  from  1789  to  1829:  (a)  external  history  includ- 
ing foreign  relations;  (b)  constitutional  growth;  (c)  liter- 
ature; (d)  social  development;  (e)  commerce  and  industry; 
(/)  general  progress.  After  any  one  of  these  general  topics 
has  been  studied  thoroughly,  much  time  can  be  saved  in 
the  consideration  of  the  others,  because  of  their  interrela- 
tions. Knowing  one  topic  in  some  tietail  furnishes  the  gon-» 
necting  links  necessary  to  facilitate  the  learning  of  others.! 
In  other  words,  such  a  use  of  the  topical  method  is  an  appli- 
cation of  the  general  truth  contained  in  the  statement  that 
the  plowshare  of  historical  knowledge  is  kept  bright,  not  so 
much  by  frequent  rubbing  as  by  constant  use  in  turning  over 
fresh  soil,  the  fresh  soil  in  this  case  being  the  material  studied 
in  connection  with  each  of^he  remaining  topics  included  in  a 
certain  period  of  history,  after  one  had  been  thoroughly 
considered. 

1  Published  in  a  summary  form  in  School  Reviewy  XXV,  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4 
(February,  March,  and  April,  191 7). 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    73 

3.  When  pupils  are  left  to  work  up  a  topic  more  or  less 
independently,  they  are  taught  to  examine  and  use  books; 
led  to  select  the  important  from  the  unimportant ;  and  thrown 
upon  their  own  responsibility  for  what  they  select. 

4.  The  topical  method  subordinates  memory  to  reason  and 
imagination,  and  gives  students  opportunity  to  know  things 
by  comparison.  Historical  personages,  events,  dates,  and  places 
are  no  longer  remembered  individually,  but  in  their  relation 
to  some  big  movement ;  hence  knowing  rather  than  mere 
memory  becomes  the  important  goal. 

In  order  that  all  of  these  four  important  advantages  may 
be  secured  for  the  student,  various  forms  and  combinations  of 
the  topical  method  are  employed.     Chief  among  them  are: 

1.  Select  a  number  of  topics  within  one  period  of  history, 
let  us  say,  the  Age  of  Pericles,  or  the  Roman  Empire.  Assign 
each  member  of  the  class  a  topic  and  have  him  report  from 
time  to  time.  This  is  the  college  seminar  method  and  has  no 
place  in  the  high  school.  It  was  tried  out  in  the  early  nineties 
under  the  influence  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  which  recom- 
mended that  a  year  in  high  school  be  devoted  to  an  intensive 
study  of  one  little  period  in  history — the  American  Revolution, 
or  the  French  Revolution,  or  the  Reformation.  Wherever  this 
was  attempted  it  was  by  the  topical  method,  topics  being 
assigned  to  individual  students. 

2.  Plan  the  whole  course  around  a  few  big  topics  on  which 
the  class  will  work  as  a  unit.  ThiS  is  especially  applicable  in 
European  and  ancient  history.  In  European  history  topics  are 
selected  which  are  more  or  less  common  to  all  countries,  the 
topic  rather  than  the  country  being  made  the  unit  of  the 
work.  Democratic  movements,  social,  educational,  and  reli- 
gious reforms,  industrial  conditions  and  combinations,  and  the 
life  of  the  common  people  are  some  big  topics  which  could 
be  used.  Or  in  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States 
one  subject  or  topic  might  be  pursued  throughout  its  his- 
tory.   For  example,  the  subject  of  agriculture  could  be  studied 


74  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

from  its  crude  beginning  in  colonial  times  to  its  present-day 
complexities,  after  which  another  subject  or  movement  could 
be  treated  similarly.  This  use  of  the  method  is  not  as  well 
adapted  to  the  study  of  American  as  it  is  to  European  history, 
for  when  a  subject  like  agriculture  is  pursued  without 
interruption  throughout  its  history  in  this  country,  the 
ramifications  become  so  complex  that  the  student  gets 
lost  in  them.  In  other  words,  the  road  in  the  historical 
forest  made  by  his  study  of  this  one  subject  closes 
up  behind  him  as  fast  as  he  moves^  forward,  and  finally  he 
becomes  so  bewildered  that  there  is  no  longer  any  substantial 
progress  made  toward  the  goal. 

3.  Select  a  certain  period  of  history  and  teach  it  topically, 
the  class  working  as  a  unit  on  each  topic.  To  apply  this  way 
of  using  the  method  to  the  period  of  American  history  from 
1789  to  1829  one  would  proceed  as  follows:  first,  summarize 
the  periods  as  a  whole,  with  emphasis  on  the  political.  This 
summary  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  short  story  which  each 
student  learns ;  after  this  story  is  thoroughly  known,  take  up  the 
following  topics:  (a)  social  progress  and  development  includ- 
ing population,  homes  and  home  life,  conditions  of  labor,  social 
and  moral  betterment,  religious  activities,  and  educational  life ; 
•  (6)  industrial  progress;  (c)  commercial  development  and 
foreign  relations ;  (d)  political  history,  using  it  as  a  basis  for 
a  summary  and  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  period  as  a  whole. 

This  latter  seems  to  be  a  better  use  of  the  method  when 
applied  to  United  States  history  than  the  second  one  described 
above.  It  certainly  avoids  the  chief  stumblingblocks  of  the 
second.  Its  merits  also  lie  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  success- 
fully used  with  one  or  many  texts,  the  best  results,  of  course, 
coming  when  the  teacher  is  not  hampered  by  a  scarcity  of 
suitable  material.  «, 

To  attempt  to  formulate  a  progressive  use  of  the  topical 
method  does  not  seem  worth  while  in  this  connection,  for 
efficient  history  teaching  demands  that  little  use  be  made  of 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    75 

the  method  except  in  its  simplest  form  in  the  junior  high 
school.  Its  chief  use  on  this  level  of  history  instruction  should 
be  to  accomplish  certain  things.  It  may  be  employed  advan- 
tageously in  the  last  half  year  devoted  to  American  history  in 
this  school  to  make  topical  review  of  certain  phases  of  our  his- 
tory. Topics  like  the  following  might  properly  form  the  basis 
of  such  a  review: 

1.  Steps    toward    unifying    the    colonies    and    establishing    the 
national  government  in  1789. 

2.  The  commercial  and  territorial  policy   of  England  toward 
the  colonies  ending  in  the  Revolution. 

3.  The  development  of  transportation  facilities  (emphasize  the 
period  prior  to  i860). 

4.  Our  territorial  expansion. 

5.  Slavery  and  the  slavery  system. 

6.  Revolutionary  inventions  and  processes. 

7.  The  chief  political  parties  and  their  doctrines. 

8.  Important    treaties    with    foreign   powers   and   international 
relations. 

9.  Finance,  banking,  and  panics. 

10.  Genesis  of  all  the  colonies  and  special  consideration  of  Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 

11.  Our  system  of  revenue. 

12.  Civil-service  reform  and   the  spoils  system.  * 

13.  The  present  and  past  of  the  suffrage  problem. 

14.  Causes,  results,  and  a  few  of  the  most  important  events 
of  our  various  wars. 

15.  Internal  improvements  (emphasize  the  period  prior  to  i860). 

16.  Chief  facts  in  the  history  of  agriculture. 

17.  Trusts  and  industrial  combinations. 

18.  Labor  and  labor  unions. 

19.  The  factory  system  in  the  United  States. 

20.  The  presidents,  time,  chief  events,  and  party. 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  few  of  these  twenty  topics  could  be 
used  for  the  purpose  of  review  even  before  the  entire  field  of 
American  history  had  been  covered  by  the  textbook  method. 


76  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

For  example,  numbers  i  and  2  could  be  made  subjects  for 
topical  teaching  after  the  period  from  1763  to  1789  had  been 
completed.  This  use  of  the  method  mainly  for  review  purposes 
seems  best  adapted  to  the  junior  high  school.  In  the  first  two 
years  of  the  senior  high  school  it  can  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed in  the  form  described  under  3  on  page  74 ;  namely,  select 
a  certain  period  of  history  and  teach  it  topically,  the  class 
working  as  a  unit  on  each  topic.  Or,  if  some  topics  continue 
through  more  than  one  period,  a  larger  chronological  division 
may  be  used.  By  the  time  the  student  reaches  the  last  year  of 
the  senior  high  school  he  should  be  prepared  for  the  topical 
method  in  almost  any  form.  However,  until  history  teachers  in 
the  senior  high  school  are  sure  that  their  students  are  thor- 
oughly drilled  in  the  use  of  the  textbook  method  in  the  junior 
high  school,  they  had  better  in  all  probability  make  large 
use  of  the  textbook  method  themselves  if  acceptable  results 
are  to  be  obtained. 

The  Laboratory,  or  Source-Study,  Method 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  com- 
mittee on  history  which  reported  to  the  Committee  of  Ten 
recommended  that  some  use  be  made  of  the  source  method  in 
teaching  history  in  the  secondary  school.  While  this  is  the 
first  formal  recognition  of  the  method  by  a  respectable  body  of 
history  teachers,  its  use  had  been  individually  advocated  even 
before  this  committee  made  its  report.  In  1885  Mary  Sheldon's 
Studies  in  General  History  (Students'  Edition)  was  published. 
This  book  contemplated  the  adoption  of  the  source  method 
and  purported  to  give  sufficient  material  for  the  student's  use. 
The  most  conspicuous  attempt  to  use  this  book  and  the  source 
method  which  it  presupposed  was  in  the  state  of  Nebraska 
during  and  following  the  school  year  of  1 896-1 897.  The  two 
leading  advocates  of  the  method  in  this  state  were  Professors 
Fling  and  Caldwell,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska.  Through- 
out the  year  the  method  was  introduced  these  two  gentlemen 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    77 

worked  unceasingly  for  its  success.  They  wrote  for  the 
teachers'  use  what  was  subsequently  published  under  the 
title  of  Studies  in  European  and  American  History,  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Source-Study  Method  in  History.  In  these 
studies  detailed  suggestions  and  helps  on  the  use  of  the 
method  were  given  the  teachers. 

The  steps  in  the  application  of  the  source-study  method 
as  outlined  by  Professor  Fling  were  three:  First,  the  student' 
was  to  answer  six  or  seven  questions  or,  in  other  words,  solve 
six  or  seven  problems  based  on  material  given  in  his  text. 
Each  question  was  to  be  answered  fully  and  the  answer  neatly 
written  in  a  notebook  and  brought  to  class  in  that  form.  These 
exercises  were  to  be  read  exactly  as  written,  in  answer  to  the 
question  in  the  text  when  put  by  the  teacher  during  the  recita- 
tion period.  Class  discussions  were  to  be  carried  on  in  terms 
of  the  written  answers  to  the  set  of  questions  found  in  the 
text.  After  all  questions  on  a  topic  had  been  answered  and 
discussed,  the  pupil  was  ready  for  the  second  step,  namely, 
analyzing  the  results  of  his  study  thus  far  and  stating  them  in 
outline  form.  This  outline  was  brought  to  class,  placed  on 
the  board,  and  criticized  during  the  recitation.  The  last'  step 
consisted  in  composing  a  short  narrative  based  upon  the  out- 
line. This  narrative  was  read  and  criticized  during  the  recita- 
tion. Much  emphasis  was  placed  on  notebooks,  the  material 
entered  in  them  being  arranged  in  this  order:  answers,  class 
notes,  outlines,  narratives. 

Under  the  able  leadership  of  Professors  Fling  and  Caldwell 
much  enthusiasm  for  the  method  was  created.  One  principal 
in  writing  about  the  success  of  the  system  in  his  school  said : 

I  used  this  method  last  year  in  my  classes,  and  am  using  it 
again  this  year.  This  can  be  the  only  method  of  studying 
history;  it  is  not  the  passive  reading  of  a  narrative  of  history, 
but  is  the  downright  study  of  the  problems  presented  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  a  nation.  In  this  method  the  pupil  is  not  called  upon  to 
fill  his  mind  with  a  number  of  facts,  but  he  is  called  upon  to  work 


78  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

out  the  problems  that  any  historian  must  solve.  He  is  put  into 
the  workshop  or  laboratory  of  the  historian.  The  narraiive  method 
can  do  little  more  than  train  the  memory.  .  .  .  The  source  method 
does  as  much  in  training  the  memory  as  the  old  method,  but, 
more  than  this,  the  other  faculties  are  brought  into  use.  The 
student  is  compelled  to  study,  to  search,  to  weigh,  to  compare. 
All  this  must  surely  be  of  more  value  than  the  old  way  of  filHng 
the  student's  mind  with  a  mass  of  facts  and  dates  to  be  forgotten 
almost  immediately. 

After  using  this  method  I  am  convinced  it  is  the  only  way 
to  study  and  teach  history.  It  is  true  that  the  work  is  hard, 
.  .  .  but  the  results  are  better.  ...  As  we  go  on  I  find  my 
pupils  work  out  the  problems  with  less  and  less  difficulty.  I 
think  by  the  time  they  have  completed  the  course  they  will  be 
prepared  to  interpret,  to  some  extent,  the  events  that  are  being 
daily  enacted  around  them.  The  teacher  must  work,  as  well  as 
the  pupils.  .  .  .^ 

Another  teacher  in  making  a  report  on  the  'success  of  the 
work  said : 

I  have  been  asked  to  report  on  the  success  of  the  work  in  high 
schools.  From  letters  received  from  enthusiastic  teachers  in  the 
state,  I  judge  that  they  think  it  the  only  true  method.  My 
actual  observation  is  confined  to  my  own  work,  of  which  I  may 
not  be  the  best  judge,  but  I  will  say  that  I  could  not  conscientiously 
employ  any  other  method. 

I  think  I  have  been  met  with  every  objection  that  can  be  urged 
to.  it,  and  my  faith  in  it  is  stronger  than  ever  as  the  only  scientific 
method.  It  is  taking  history  out  of  the  insignificant  place  that  it 
has  had,  and  is  making  it  a  subject  of  highest  importance  on  account 
of  its  educational  value.^ 

Miss  Fanny  Baker,  of  the  Nebraska  City  High  School, 
summarized  the  advantages  of  the  laboratory,  or  source-study, 
method  as  follows : 

I.  Independent,  clear,  and  logical  thinking  is  developed.  Of 
course,  it  is  the  business  of  the  "studies"  to  do  this,  and  really 

1  Fling  and  Caldwell,  Studies  in  European  and  American  History,  pp.  253  f. 

2  Ibid.  p.  290. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    79 

there  is  no  escape  from  thinking.  But  they  are  not  sufficient  in 
themselves.  There  must  be  the  work  in  outHnes  and  in  narratives 
also.    This  is  of  inestimable  value.    There  comes  as  a  result  of  this  : 

2.  Growth  of  the  spirit  of  research.  It  is  such  a  pleasure  to 
quote  from  Homer,  Herodotus,  or  Thucydides !  I  like  to  have 
my  pupils  read  all  the  outside  material  possible  that  will  help  them. 
There  is  some  danger  of  confusing  them,  however,  unless  plenty  of 
time  is  taken. 

3.  More  original  work  and  better  work  in  EngHsh  composition  is 
done. 

4.  There  is  increased  enthusiasm  and  interest  in  study.    I  think, 
the  kind  of  notebooks  used  helps  here.     It  encourages  pupils  to 
see  work  grow  under  their  hands. 

5.  Marked  improvement  is  apparent  in  all  work  done  by  the 
history  pupils.  This  method  sharpens  and  brightens  wits  wonder- 
fully !  Then  the  definiteness  required  here  tends  to  prevent  slur- 
ring over  work  in  other  branches.^ 

One  might  suppose  from  the  enthusiasm  for  the  source 
method  displayed  in  the  foregoing  quotations  that  it  would 
have  swept  all  other  methods  out  of  existence  in  a  short  time. 
Fortunately  for  the  cause  of  high-school  history  teaching  and 
the  high-school  students  as  well  such  a  thing  did  not  happen. 
However,  some  good  did  result  from  this  enthusiasm.  One 
such  result  was  the  publishing  in  a  form  easily  accessible  to 
high-school  students  of  much  source  material.  The  source 
books,  readings,  translations,  reprints,  and  the  like  in  every 
field  of  history  ordinarily  taught  in  the  high  school  originated 
in  the  one-time  enthusiasm  for  the  source  method.  This 
material  has  come  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  all  up-to- 
date  and  efficient  high-school  history  teaching  and  has 
changed  the  problem  of  the  present-day  teacher  from  one  of 
how  to  use  the  source  method  to  one  of  utilizing  the  supply  of 
source  extracts  so  easily  accessible.^    Because  of  this  fact  the 

^  Fling  and  Caldwell,  Studies  in  Etiropean  and  American  History,  p.  303. 

2  Some    examples    of    this  material  are    Davis,  Readings    in    Ancient 

History,  Allyn  and  Bacon,  191 2;  Webster,  Readings  in  Ancient  History ^ 


8o  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

remainder  of  our  discussion  of  the  source  method  will  center 
on  the  ends  to  be  sought  in  using  source  extracts  and  readings 
and  how  to  utilize  the  available  material  in  attaining  these 
ends. 
^^  When  experienced  history  teachers  are  asked  to  state  the 
ends  that  they  hope  to  attain  in  using  source  extracts  and  read- 
ings they  reply:  To  make  the  subject  real  and  vital,  to  get 
the  spirit  of  the  times,  to  acquaint  the  pupils  with  different 
kinds  of  historical  matter,  to  cultivate  the  historical  sense  or 
attitude,  to  aid  in  visualizing  scenes,  to  illustrate  the  method 
of  writing  history,  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  history  work, 
to  get  first-hand  additional  information  on  a  point,  to  correct 
mistaken  ideas,  to  illuminate  the  textbook,  to  make  impressions 
stronger,  to  broaden  the  pupils'  viewpoint,  to  give  atmosphere, 
and  to  give  slight  training  in  research  work.^  While  other  types 
of  historical  material  contribute  to  the  attainment  of  these 
important  outcomes  of  good  history  teaching,  source  extracts 
and  readings,  if  properly  used,  certainly  make  large  contri- 
butions. Because  of  this  fact  the  problem  of  how  to  use  the 
source  material  now  available  to  secure  as  many  of  the  fore- 
going ends  as  possible  becomes  a  very  practical  one,  especially 
for  the  inexperienced  teacher.  Some  ways  of  solving  this 
important  problem  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

I.  Use  in  classroom  for  illustrative  purposes.  The  teacher 
may  read  an  extract  or  have  some  pupil  read  it.  The  reading 
should  be  accompanied  by  a  short  account  of  the  author,  how 
he  secured  his  information,  and  where  and  how  he  wrote — by 

D.C. Heath  &  Co.,  1913  ;  Webster,  J^eadin^s  in  Medieval  and  Modem  History^ 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1917  ;*T?Tuzzey,  Readings  in  American  History,  Ginn 
and  Company,  191 5;  McLaughlin,  Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American 
Nation,  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1914;  Thallon,  Readings  in  Greek  His- 
tory, Ginn  and  Company,  1914  ;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History, 
Ginn  and  Company,  1904,  1906;  Tuell  and  Hatch,  Readings  in  English 
History,  Ginn  and  Company,  191 3  ;  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History, 
Ginn  and  Company,  1908. 

1  Gold,  "  Methods  and  Content  of  Courses  in  History  in  the  High 
Schools  of  the  United  States,"  School  Review,  XXV,  278. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    8l 

actual  observation,  from  oral  tradition,  or  from  written  ac- 
counts now  lost.  When  used  in  this  way  the  source  extract 
mjist  be  rather  short  and  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  point 
to  be  illustrated.  The  purpose  of  the  teacher  in  using  the 
source  in  this  manner  is  to  make  the  facts  very  vivid,  hence 
easy  to  remember.  Only  the  most  important  facts  should  be 
so  illustrated. 

2.  Assign  extracts  of  considerable  length  to  students  for 
rapid  reading.  Here  the  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the 
information  attained.  A  brief,  clear,  written  outline  of  the 
contents  might  be  demanded.  This  is  collateral  reading  and 
should  be  treated  as  such. 

3.  Have  pupils  make  a  detailed  study  of  a  source  extract 
of  a  limited  length.  This  gives  training  in  the  critical  study 
of  source  material.  Definite  questions  might  be  set  as  problems. 
A  good  scheme  is  to  have  the  questions  in  mimeographed 
form,  leaving  sufficient  room,  for  the  student  to  insert  his 
answer.  When  the  questions  have  been  answered,  an  outline 
should  be  made  by  the  class,  showing  the  answers  in  their 
proper  relation  to  each  other  and  at  the  same  time  presenting 
the  topic  as  a  whole. 

4.  Have  pupils  make  a  detailed  study  of  a  number  of 
sources  dealing  with  the  same  event  and  later  write  an  ac- 
count based  on  the  inform.ation  gained  therefrom.^  The 
advocates  of  this  use  of  the  sources  claim  for  it  the  follow- 
ing indirect  benefits:  (i)  the  pupil  is  taught  that  knowledge 
grows  and  certainty  is  attained  through  question  and  answer, 
and  that  the  questioning  must  go  on  until  no  more  questions 
can  be  asked  or  answered;  (2)  the  application  of  this  theory 
develops  scientific  skepticism  and  plays  havoc  with  credulity ; 
the  pupil  demands  proof  and  begins  to  understand  what  the 
word  means;    (3)   he  learns  how  difficult  it  is  to  arrive  at 

^  The  following  source  books  are  adapted  to  this  type  of  work :  Mc- 
Laughlin and  Others,  Source  Problems  in  United  States  History;  Duncalf  and 
Krey,  Parallel  Source  Problems  in  Medieval  History  \  and  Fling,  Source 
Problems  on  the  French  Revolution^  —  all  published  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


82  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

certainty  and  he  becomes  conscious  and  cautious  in  his  own 
affirmations;  (4)  a  high  standard  is  set  in  the  organization 
of  knowledge  and  in  the  careful  formulation  of  it,  that  the 
statement  may  correspond  to  the  evidence;  (5)  finally,  the 
practical  training  in  historical  proof  supplies  the  pupil  with 
the  means  of  distinguishing  between  good  and  bad,  scientific 
and  popular  secondary  works.^ 

5.  Constitutional,  political,  and  liberty  documents,  such  as 
Magna  Charta,  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  and  the  like, 
should  be  seen  and  read,  but  not  studied  except  in  special 
cases  and  for  a  particular  purpose.  Pupils  should  be  per- 
mitted and  have  the  opportunity  to  browse  in  this  material 
without  any  thought  of  analyzing  or  taking  notes  on  it  or 
being  held  for  details.  The  aim  should  be  primarily  to  have 
them  cultivate  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  the  documents 
rather  than  attain  an  intimate  knowledge  of  their  contents. 

The  safe  and  sane  attitude  toward  the  use  of  the  sources 
for  the  high-school  history  teacher  to  take  is  that  they  are 
adjuncts  to  good  textbook  work  and,  as  such,  have  an  impor- 
tant place  in  junior  and  senior  high-school  history  teaching. 

The  Problem  Method 

The  word  "problem"  has  been  much  overworked  in  recent 
educational  literature.  While  the  word  has  been  in  use  long 
enough  in  the  natural  and  exact  sciences  to  attain  a  definite 
meaning  and  some  respect,  it  is  too  much  of  a  newcomer  into 
the  fields  of  geography  and  history  to  command  like  regard 
and  to  express  the  same  idea  to  any  considerable  group  of 
people.  As  interpreted  by  some  individuals  the  expression 
"the  problem  method  in  the  study  of  history"  is  as  old  as 
the  source-study  method.  Indeed,  the  advocates  of  the  source- 
study  method  used  the  two  expressions  interchangeably,  and 

1  Fling,  Source  Problems  on  the  French  Revolution^  Preface,  pp.  xii. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    Ss 

no  doubt  to  the  present  day  assert  that  they  are  the  originators 
of  the  problem  method  in  history.  When  they  make  this 
assertion,  however,  they  are  not  attaching  the  same  meaning 
to  the  expression  that  current  discussions  of  the  subject  do. 
While  the  words  "question"  and  "problem"  seem  to  convey 
the  same  meaning  to  the  present-day  advocates  of  the  problem 
method,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  word  "problem"  as 
used  in  current  discussion  of  the  method  has  no  very  clearly 
defined  meaning.  While  it  may  convey  the  same  idea  as 
the  word  "question,"  it  seems  to  convey  other  ideas  as  well. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  as  it  now  stands  is  that,  because  of 
the  variety  of  meanings  attached  to  this  much-used  word, 
there  is  great  need  for  a  clear-cut  statement  of  just  what  the 
problem-solving  method  in  history  study  really  is,  and  also 
for  some  clear-cut  suggestions  relating  both  to  its  advan- 
tages and  to  the  manner  in  which  it  can  be  used.  The  next 
few  pages  will  attempt  to  do  these  things. 

First,  as  to  what  the  problem  method  in  studying  and 
teaching  history  really  is.  Briefly  stated  .it  isv.a  mode  of 
procedure  from  day  to  day  which  rests  essentially  on  questions, 
causes,  and  results  as  they  relate  to  historical  phenomena.N  It 
consists  in  leading  the  student  to  see  the  problems  wnich 
confronted  people  in  the  past  and  to  solve  them  as  they 
were  solved  by  people  in  the  past.  The.  method,  therefore, 
is  an  informal  rather  than  a  formal  one.  Assignments  are 
made  in  terms  of  problems  to  solve,  and  lessons  are  prepared 
to  solve  a  problem  rather  than  to  meet  a  requirement.  For 
example,  in  teaching  the  history  of  the  United  States  just 
after  1789,  the  teacher  would  first  lead  the  class  to  see  what 
problems  confronted  the  people  at  this  date.  Some  of  these 
could  be  stated  as  follows :  the  problem  of  providing  govern- 
mental machinery;  the  problem  of  providing  money;  and  the 
problem  of  establishing  satisfactory  relations  with  foreign 
powers.  All  these  problems  were  actually  met  and  solved 
by  the  people  in  their  work  of  getting  the  new  government 


84  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

under  way.  Therefore,  in  teaching  the  topics  represented  by 
these  problems  the  teacher  would  make  his  assignments  in  such 
a  way  that  the  pupils  would  solve  a  number  of  problems  just 
as  they  were  solved  in  the  early  years  of  the  nation's  history. 
As  to  the  advantages  of  the  problem  method  of  teaching 
history  over  the  more  traditional  methods,  its  advocates  make 
the  following  assertions : 

^^.  It  leads  pupils  to  form  judgments  and  to  look  behind 
facts  for  the  human  motive  for  the  act.  This  gives  good 
training  in  discovering  the  motives  that  prompt  acts  which 
pupils  observe  from  day  to  day,  thus  making  them  keen 
observers  of  human  nature. 

2.  It  arouses  self-activity  in  a  student  to  an  extent  that 
no  other  method  in  history  does.  This  self-activity  is  forced 
to  express  itself  in  an  intelligent  manner,  if  wisdom  is  shown 
in  the  selection  of  problems. 

3.  It  teaches  the  student  to  get  thought  from  the  printed 
page.  Since  he  goes  to  a  page  looking  for  a  definite  statement 
relative  to  the  solution  of  some  problem,  he  must  learn  to  find 
the  exact  statement  which  he  needs  in  solving  his  problem. 

4.  The  method  challenges  the  intellect  of  the  student  rather 
than  his  memory. 

5.  Teaching  history  by  the  problem  method  conforms  to  the 
following  fundamental  truth:  "The  indispensable  prerequi- 
site to  effective  work  is  that  the  matter  in  hand  shall  be  recog- 
nized and  attacked  as  a  problem."  When  history  lessons 
are  turned  into  problems,  student's  attack  them  with  a  vigor 
unknown  in  page-by-page  assignments.  They  go  to  their  book 
to  find  the  solution  of  aVro^^lem  rather  than  a  task  to  be 
performed. 

6.  Life  is  a  process  of  solving  problems,  and  if  history  is  to 
assist  in  the  solution  of  life's  problems,  it  must  be  taught  in 
such  a  way  as  to  give  training  in  solving  them.    Since  people 

V  in  the  past  met  and  solved  problems  just  as  people  today 
are  meeting  and  solving  them,  it  is  the  best  sort  of  preparation 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    85 

for  solving  life's  problems  to  go  through  the  process  of  dis- 
covering how  people  in  the  past  solved  theirs. 

The  only  comment  necessary  in  connection  with  these  so- 
called  advantages  of  the  problem  method  in  studying  and 
teaching  history  is  that  history  well  taught  by  any  one  of 
the  methods  previously  discussed  would  secure  the  advantages 
claimed  for  the  problem  method.  In  other  words,  the  problem 
method  is  not  the  panacea  for  the  present-day  ills  of  history 
teaching  in  junior  and  senior  high  schools.  A  long-continued 
day-by-day  use  of  the  method  would  be  likely  to  end  in 
disaster  to  the  teacher,  to  the  student,  and  to  the  subject, 
history.  An  occasional  use  of  it  to  solve  peculiar  and  out- 
standing problems  should  be  encouraged.  Of  course  there 
should  be  some  problem  solving  in  practically  all  lessons,  but 
to  use  the  method  for  an  entire  year  as  outlined  below  would  be 
entirely  too  much  of  a  strain  on  the  three  chief  factors  involved 
in  the  work ;  namely,  the  pupil,  the  teacher,  and  the  subject. 

It  is  one  thing  to  talk  glibly  about  the^  problem-solving 
method  in  history  teaching  and  quite  another  thing  to  plan 
a  course  of  study  and  a  concrete  method  of  procedure  which 
will  apply  it.  A  conspicuous  example  of  an  attempt  to 
outline  a  course  of  study  based  on  the  problem-solving  method 
in  history  is  found  in  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  of  the  state  of  New  Jersey.^  One  needs, 
however,  but  to  glance  through  the  course  in  history  for 
Grades  VII  and  VIII  as  outlined  in  this  pamphlet  to  be 
convinced  that  the  trick  is  not  turned  when  one  simply 
begins  each  main  topic  with  the  words  "how,"  "why,"  or 
"what,"  For  example,  instead  of  writing  "The  discovery 
of  America"  as  most  outlines  do,  this  problem-solving  outline 
has  "How  America  came  to  be  discovered."  If  the  problem- 
solving  method  in  history  means  nothing  more  than  placing 

1  The  Teaching  of  Geography^  History,  and  Civics^  191 7-  A  more  recent 
example  is  the  course  of  study  in  history  for  the  public  schools  of  Duluth, 
Minnesota,  published  during  the  summer  of  1919. 


86  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY     • 

how,  why,  or  what  before  the  ordinary  statement  of  a  general 
topic,  it  has  little  to  contribute  to  the  cause  of  good  history 
teaching.  This  effort,  however,  on  the  part  of  one  up-to-date 
department  of-  public  instruction  to  get  the  method  into  a 
usable  form  should  be  commended,  for  it  is  through  such 
efforts  that  the  method  will  eventually  become  of  great 
service  to  teachers  of  history. 

Space  will  not  admit  here  of  the  working  out  of  a  series 
of  problems  in  the  various  fields  of  high-school  history.  A 
concrete  and  detailed  outline  of  one  problem  adapted  to  the 
junior  and  one  to  the  senior  high  school  will  have  to  suffice. 
Since  American  history  is  universally  taught  in  both  of  these 
schools,  it  seems  more  practical  to  give  examples  of  the 
problem-solving  method  in  this  field. 

AN  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  PROBLEM-SOLVING  METHOD 
IN  THE  FIELD  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  i 

A.  Junior  High  School. 

I.  Introductory.  There  are  four  phases  in  the  process  of 
teaching  a  problem  in  the  field  of  history.  They  are 
(i)  stating  and  defining  the  problem;  (2)  suggestions 
as  to  its  solution  and  their  evaluation;  (3)  collecting, 
tabulating,  and  organizing  material ;  (4)  drawing  con- 
clusions based  on  the  material ;  in  other  words,  arriving 
at  a  solution  of  the  problem. 
II.  Stating  and  defining  the  problem.  Suppose  the  problem 
is  that  of  financing  the  new  government  inaugurated 
in  1789,  then^a  statement  for  teaching  purposes  could 
read  "To  provide  a  system  of  revenue  for  the  newly 
organized  United  States  government."  This  statement 
of  the  problem  is  intended  to  approximate  actuality. 
Whether  or  not  Hamilton  ever  stated  his  problem  in 
these  words,  it  is  certain  that  they  express  what  must 

1  The  writer  is  under  obligation  to  Mr.  J.  M.  McConnell  and  Professor 
S.  C.  Parker  for  the  general  scheme  underlying  this  example.  See  Parker, 
Exercises  to  accompany  ^^  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E93  ff. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    87 

have  been  uppermost  in  his  mind  on  assuming  the 
duties  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  the  newly 
organized  government.  The  teaching  idea  back  of  this 
statement  of  the  problem  is  to  get  it  in  such  a  form 
that  in  solving  it  the  pupils  will  in  so  far  as  possible 
rehve  the  experiences  of  those  who  really  provided  for 
a  system  of  revenue  in  the  early  years  of  our  nation's 
history, 
III.  Suggestions  as  to  the  solutions  of  the  problem  and  their 
evaluation.  These  suggestions  should  come  from  the 
students  before  any  reading  is  done.  They  should  be 
tabulated  as  given  and  later  evaluated.  A  wide-awake 
class  will  suggest  some  or  all  of  the  following : 

1.  Tax  imports  and  exports. 

2.  Direct  taxation;  ask  each  state  for  a  certain  quota. 

3.  Place  a  tax  on  incomes. 

4.  Issue  bonds  for  immediate  need. 

5.  Tax  whisky,  tobacco,  and  the  like. 

6.  Tax  deeds,  mortgages,  and  similar  legal  documents. 

7.  Sell  the  land  owned  by  the  government. 

8.  Issue  paper  money. 

9.  Increase  postage  rates. 
10.  Sell  lottery  tickets.^ 

In  evaluating  these  proposed  solutions  the  class  will  soon 
discover  the  impossibility  of  taxing  exports  in  1789.  The 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  others  will  be  brought 
out  in  the  course  of  the  discussion.  The  supposition  here  is 
that  the  students  will  not  previously  have  read  Hamilton's 
financial  proposals.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  herein 
lies  one  of  the  difficulties  of  an  ideal  application  of  the 
problem-saving  method.  How  is  one  to  keep  interested  pupils 
from  reading  in  advance  of  the  actual  lesson? 

1  To  get  the  best  results  from  an  exercise  like  this  the  class  must  know 
the  history  of  the  eight  or  ten  years  just  prior  to  1789.  In  theory  this  his- 
tory should  be  known  by  the  class  as  well  as  it  was  known  by  the  people 
living  in  1789.  Such  a  knowledge  would  make  the  proposed  solutions  and 
their  evaluation  approximate  those  proposed  and  evaluated  at  the  time. 


SS  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

IV.  Collecting,  tabulating,  and  organizing  material.  Reading 
and  investigation  are  now  in  order.  The  text  in  the 
hands  of  the  children  will  form  the  basis  for  these 
activities.  Other  reading  matter  should  also  be  pro- 
vided. There  is  no  danger  of  reading  too  much  here. 
The  class  exercises  will  consist  in  tabulating  the  various 
items  in  Hamilton's  scheme,  explaining  each  in  some 
detail,  and  presenting  the  arguments  for  and  against 
the  various  measures.  All  this  adds  definiteness  to  the 
work  and  assures  some  of  the  advantages  claimed  for 
the  method  by  its  exponents. 
V.  Drawing  conclusions  based  on  the  foregoing  material.  These 
conclusions  should  first  be  worked  out  one  by  one  by  the 
class  as  a  whole.  Later  they  ought  to  be  written  up 
in  summary  form  by  each  member  of  the  group  and 
placed  in  the  permanent  notebook. 

Since  this  example  of  the  problem-solving  method  in  Ameri- 
can history  is  adapted  to  Grade  VII  or  Grade  VIII,  it  could 
not  be  used  with  senior  high-school  students  in  American 
history,  because  most  of  them  would  know  at  the  outset  what 
is  included  under  IV  and  V  above.  This  situation  would 
hold  true  of  the  entire  field  of  American  history,  since  the 
subject  is  so  universally  and  in  most  cases  so  well  taught  in' 
all  junior  high  schools.  Hence,  if  the  teacher  in  the  senior 
high  school  wishes  to  employ  the  method,  he  must  seek  an- 
other form.  The  following  example  is  intended  to  offer  some 
suggestions  relative  to  a  form  which  one  might  use.  It  is 
meant  to  secure  thi  much-to-be-desired  progress  within  the 
subject  spoken  of  previously  and  considered  in  some  detail 
later. 

B.  Senior  High  School. 

I.  Introductory.  Use  a  modification  of  the  four  phases  of  the 
process  of  teaching  the  problem  found  in  the  example 
for  the  junior  high  school.  As  modified  they  should  be 
(i)  stating  and  defining  the  problem  ;  (2)  suggestions  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils  as  to  the  best  ways  of  approach 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    89 

to  a  solution  of  the  problem  and  their  evaluation; 
(3)  gathering  the  data  by  the  method  determined  upon 
as  a  result  of  the  discussion  in  (2);  (4)  organizing  the 
data  gathered  in  (3)  and  drawing  conclusions  therefrom. 
II.  Stating  and  defining  the  problem.  For  practical  purposes 
the  problem  should  be  one  which  can  be  solved  with- 
out the  use  of  elaborate  sources.  The  truth  of  the 
matter  is  that,  since  so  few  high  schools  have  a  supply 
of  original  material  sufficient  to  work  out  any  historical 
problem,  the  problem  should  be  one  that  can  be  solved 
by  the  use  of  secondary  material  mainly.  The  fol- 
lowing one  seems  to  meet  this  requirement :  To  show 
that  the  causes  of  the  Revolutionary  War  were  economic 
and  religious  as  well  as  political,  and  that  the  question 
of  the  relative  importance  of  these  causes  is  a  matter 
upon  which  historians  disagree. 

In  defining  this  problem  it  will  be  necessary  to  call  atten- 
tion to  what  is  meant  by  an  economic  cause,  a  political 
cause,  and  a  religious  cause.  An  example  of  each  of  these 
should  be  given  in  this  connection.  It  will  also  be  necessary 
to  show  what  is  meant  by  "relative  importance"  before  it  will 
be  clear  upon  what  the  historians  are  disagreeing.  When 
all  these  points  are  clear  to  the  class,  work  on  the  second 
phase  of  the  process  may  begin. 

III.  Suggestions  relative  to  ways  of  approach  to  the  solution 
of  the  problem,  and  their  evaluation.  The  following  or 
similar  suggestions  will  be  given  by  the  class  : 

1.  Look    through    the    text    for    economic,    political,    and 

religious    causes    and    tabulate    these    in    separate 
columns. 

2.  Look    in    general    reference    books    dealing    with    the 

Revolutionary    War    for    causes   not   listed   in    the 
text.    Classify  these  as  in  i. 

3.  Compare  the  treatment  of  the  causes  of  the  Revolution- 

ary War  in  as  many  parallel  texts  as  possible. 

4.  Read  in  books  devoted  solely  to  the  Revolutionary  War 

to  find  the  opinion  of  speciaHsts  in  the  field. 


90  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

5.  Organize  and  classify  all  the  material  collected  by 
following  out  the  foregoing  suggestions.  Draw  con- 
clusions based  on  this  material. 

Of  course,  if  source  material  is  accessible  it  should  be 
employed.  The  amount  of  time  to  be  spent  upon  the  solution 
of  the  problem  will  determine  the  quantity  of  material  that 
can  be  used.  Such  a  problem,  however,  could  not  be  solved 
without  a  few  parallel  textbooks.  There  must  be  an  oppor- 
tunity to  get  the  views  of  different  historians.  In  the  evalu- 
ation of  the  suggestions  for  solving  the  problem  the  ones 
determined  upon  will,  of  course,  presuppose  accessible  material 
for  carrying  them  out.  Number  i  will  be  included  in  all 
selections;  number  5  will  also  be  found;  whether  or  not 
the  others  appear  will  depend  upon  the  material  at  hand. 
Even  if  a  suggestion  cannot  be  carried  out,  it  is  worth  making 
and  discussing,  for  the  broadening  effect  it  has  on  the  con- 
ception of  the  historical  method  held  by  the  class. 

IV.  Gathering  data  by  the  method  or  methods  determined 
upon  as  a  result  of  the  discussion  under  III  above. 
First,  the  class  will  run  through  the  discussion 
in  the  textbook,  listing  the  causes  of  the  Revolution 
mentioned  therein.  Almost  any  good  secondary  text  will 
mention  and  discuss  the  following  subjects.  In  listing 
them  the  class  should  be  asked  to  show  the  connection 
of  each  to  the  war  proper. 

1.  Navigation  acts. 

2.  Writs  of  assistance. 

3.  Demarcation  line  of  1763. 

4.  Sugar  Act  of  1764.  / 

5.  The  Stamp  Act. 

6.  Ecclesiastical  interference. 

7.  "No  taxation  without  representation." 

8.  The  social  and  political  revolution  within  the  colonies 

between  1765  and   1775. 

9.  The  Townshend  acts. 
10.  Boston  Tea  Party. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    91 

After  each  of  these  causes  has  been  listed  and  discussed 
to  determine  whether  it  is  primarily  religious,  economic,  or 
political,  some  parallel  texts  may  be  examined  for  similar 
material,  note  being  made  of  the  emphasis  each  places  on  the 
various  kind  of  causes.  If  there  is  time  and  material  avail- 
able, extended  investigation  of  the  following  topics  can  be 
profitably  made:  navigation  acts,  colonial  shipping,  enumer- 
ated articles,  smuggling,  the  Molasses  Act,  the  Sugar  Act,  the 
trade  between  the  colonies  and  Great  Britain  between  1764 
and  1775,  the  tea  tax,  and  the  laws  restricting  manufacturing. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  with  but  a  minimum  amount  of 
search  in  secondary  authorities  alone  quite  a  formidable  list 
of  causes  can  be  made.  After  a  certain  amount  of  this  work 
has  been  well  done  the  class  is  ready  to  take  the  next  step  in 
the  solution  of  the  problem. 

V.  Organizing  the  data  gathered  in  IV  and  drawing  con- 
clusions therefrom.  The  organization  may  take  the 
form  of  listing  the  causes  enumerated  in  IV  above  in 
four  columns  headed  as  follows  : 


I 

Mainly  Political 

2 
Mainly  Economic 

3 

Both  Economic 
and  Political 

4 
Religious 

I.      _               ,  _ 

I. 

I. 

I.  .     

2.    

2. 

2.     

2.    

Much  discussion  will  arise  over  the  classification  of  certain 
causes  listed  under  4  above.  It  will,  however,  be  possible  to 
classify  each  cause  under  one  of  the  foregoing  four  classi- 
fications. Differences  of  opinion  will  not  matter ;  they  will  be 
an  aid  in  arriving  at  the  solution  of  the  second  half  of  the  prob- 
lem. When  the  classification  is  finished,' the  pupils  will  be  able 
to  see  that  each  main  group  of  causes  was  important  and 
that  a  decision  made  once  for  all  upon  the  relative  importance 
of  each  group  would  be  fraught  with  historical  dangers,  thus 
a  cause  for  the  disagreement  found  among  historians. 


92  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

A  word  or  so,  in  concluding  this  discussion  of  the  problem 
method,  might  be  said  of  its  use  in  a  more  restricted  form 
than  either  of  the  foregoing.  For  example,  the  class  might 
be  given  this  problem :  "  To  prove  that  George  Bancroft 
wrote  President  Johnson's  first  annual  message."  To  solve 
this  problem  would,  of  course,  involve  sources  of  a  peculiar 
nature,  which  in  all  probability  few  secondary  schools  would 
have.  Then,  on  the  other  hand,  a  problem  the  solution  of 
which  would  require  what  is  known  as  parallel-source  extracts 
might  be  given  a  class.  The  solving  of  a  problem  based  on 
this  type  of  material  is  highly  desirable  if  the  necessary 
equipment  is  at  hand.  Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  one  can 
make  the  problem-solving  method  in  history  just  as  complex 
as  one  desires.  The  two  examples  given  above  purposely 
kept  the  method  in  a  form  that  most  history  teachers  can 
actually  use.  Those  most  enthusiastic  for  the  method  may 
wish  to  apply  it  in  the  solution  of  more  complex  problems 
which  can  be  done  with  profit  if  suitable  material  is  accessible. 

ADDITIONAL  READING   MATTER 

Branom,  M.  E.   "The  Project  Method  in  History,"  chap,  xiii  in  The 

Project  Method  in  Education.   Richard  G.  Badger,  1919. 
Elson,  H.  W.   "Use  of  Sources  in  History  Teaching,"  History  Teacher's 

Magazine^  I  (1909),  218  f. 
Fling,   F.   M.   Source   Problems   on   the   French   Revolution,   Preface. 

Harper  &  Brothers,  1913. 
Fling,  F.  M.,  and  CaijI^well,  H.  W.  Studies  in  European  and  American 

History.   Ainsworth  &  Co.,  Chicago,  III.,  1897. 
Freeland,  G.  E.   "The  Problem  Method"  and  "The  Project,"  chaps,  ii 

and  ill  in  Modern  Elementary   School   Practice.     Tlie   Macmillan 

Company,  1919.  ^ 

Hart,  A.  B.   "How  to  teach  History  in  Secondary  Schools,"  Academy 

(Syracuse)   (September,  October,  1887) ;'  also  appears  as  chap,  v  in 

Studies  in  American  Education.   Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.,  1895. 
Johnson,  B.  T.  "The  Problem  Method  of  Teaching  History  in  the  High 

School,"  Bulletin  of  the  First  District  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

History  and  Government  Series  No.  4,  January,  1916. 


TOPICAL,  SOURCE,  AND  PROBLEM  METHODS    93 

McCoNNELL,  J.  M.  "An  Example  of  the  Problem-Solving  Method  in  a 
Social  Science,"  in  Parker's  Exercises  to  accompany  ^^  Methods  of 
Teaching  in  High  Schools,''  pp.  E93  ff.    Ginn  and  Company,  1918. 

O'Neil,  W.  J.,  and  Roberts,  Effie.  "  The  Problem  Idea  in  the  Teaching 
of  History,"  Normal  Instructor  and  Primary  Plans  (March,  191 7). 

Violette,  E.  M.  "Setting  the  Problem,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine^ 
III  (1912),  181  f. 

Wesley,  C.  H.  "The  Problem  of  Sources  and  Methods  in  History 
Teaching,"  School  Review,  XXIV  (1916),  329  ff. 


CHAPTER  V 

PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  school  administrators  t^ke 
liberties  with  history  that  they  would  not  think  of  taking 
with  other  subjects.  For  example,  no  one  ever  heard  of  a 
high-school  senior  being  permitted  to  take  third-year  Latin, 
mathematics,  or  German,  without  having  had  the  first  years 
of  work  in  these  subjects,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  history. 
The  reason  for  this  becomes  evident  when  one  reflects  upon  the 
fact  that  the  principle  of  progress  within  the  subject  has 
been  so  firmly  established  in  some  of  the  high-sclpol  studies 
that  no  one  ever  thinks  of  violating  it  when  administering 
them.  The  maturity  exemplified  in  the  organizatiok  and  the 
teaching  of  Latin,  algebra,  and  physics  is  not  to  beKound  in 
history  and  some  of  the  other  relatively  new  subjects  in  the 
high-school  curriculum. 

The  General  Nature  of  the  Problem  and  Some 
^Attending  Difficulties 

It  should  be  said  at  the  outset  that  progression  within  the 
subject  of  history  cannot  be  wholly  attained  as  it  is  in  mathe- 
matics, Latin,  and  physics,  where  it  is  secured  largely  through 
the  organization  of  the  subject  matter.  In  these  subjects 
things  must  be  learned  in  one-two-three  order.  The  fact  that 
that  which  follows  is  so  closely  related  to  all  that  goes  before 
makes  it  necessary  to  know  the  old  material  before  anj^  sub- 
stantial progress  can  be  made  in  acquiring  the  new.  While 
this  logical  sequence  is  in  favor  of  these  subjects  when 
considered  from  the  standpoint  of  their  teachableness,  yet,  as 

94 


PROGRESS  WITfflN  THE  SUBJECT  95 

Judd  has  so  well  pointed  out  in  his  Psychology  of  High- 
School  Subjects,^  some  of  the  traditional  studies  are  capable 
of  even  greater  progression.  There  is  need  in  them  for  the 
same  sort  or  a  very  similar  method  of  procedure  that  is 
needed  in  the  social  and  natural  sciences ;  for,  as  they  are 
now  taught,  the  principle  of  progress  within  the  subject  is 
too  often  subordinated  to  mere  subject  matter.  Nevertheless, 
in  spite  of  this  fact,  these  subjects  are  much  superior  to 
history  when  considered  as  to  their  logical  organization.  His- 
torical facts,  conditions,  and  institutions  are,  more  or  less,  on 
a  dead  level  when  thought  of  as  to  their  teachableness.  The 
same  fact  can  be  taught  in  the  first  ^pd  twelfth  grades  with  a 
certain  degree  of  success.  Tbig  i^  gimj^Vi|/^ another  wav  of  say^ 
ing  tbat,  prnp^ression  within  the  subject  of  history  cannot  be 
secured  entirely  through  the  selection  and  the  organization 
of  the  facts  to  be  taught.  TbA  prr||^l^m  of  fyradation  in  history 
is,  therefore,  largely  one  of  method  of  pr9c^dure.  This  fact 
has  been  so  clearly  demonstrated  by  Professor  Johnson  in 
his  Teaching  of  History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools^ 
that  it  needs  no  further  elaboration  here. 

Now,  if  progression  within  the  subject  of  history  is  to  be 
secured  largely  through  method  of  procedure,  is  it  possible  to 
devise  a  method  which  will  insure  this  progression?  The 
writer's  answer  to  this  question  is  in  the  affirmative.  Others 
have  answered  it  similarly.  Judd  proposes  the  following  solu- 
tion of  the  matter: 

Suppose  the  history  course  could  be  organized  in  such  a  way  that 
the  demand  made  upon  the  student  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
history  course  was,  first  of  all,  for  ability  to  comprehend  a  coherent 
narrative  of  successive  events.  Suppose  that  at  this  stage  we  do 
not  demand  any  very  large  explanation  of  the  events  studied. 
Suppose  that  at  the  second  stage  of  his  study  we  ask  the  student 
not  only  to  understand  the  history  that  he  is  studying,  but  also 
to  understand  the  physical  facts  which  influence  history,  making 

1  Pp.  459  f.  2  Chap.  ii. 


96  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

at  this  stage  of  the  course  a  correlation  between  history  and 
geography.  This  would  demand  a  power  of  comparison  and  asso- 
ciative thinking.  Suppose  that  in  the  third  stage  we  asked  for 
a  mastery  of  evidences  upon  which  history  is  based;'  that  is, 
a  critical  evaluation  of  the  original  sources.  Suppose,  finally,  at 
the  last  stage  of  historical  discussion,  we  asked  the  student  to 
make  a  critical  comparison  of  the  different  authorities  who  have 
attempted  to  interpret  a  given  period.^ 

History  teachers  are  in  general  agreement  with  these  sug- 
gestions relative  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  progression 
within  their  subject.  It  seems,  however,  that  they  omit  an 
important  item,  namely,  that  of  definitely  assigning  each  stage 
to  a  specific  grade  in  the  high  school.  The  four  stages  would 
suggest  that  they  were  to  apply  to  the  corresponding  high- 
school  years.  If  such  be  the  intention,  it  mighty  be  suggested 
that  high-school  freshmen  should  be  required  to  comply  with 
more  than  the  first  stage  demands.  It  might  also  be  suggested 
that  it  would  be  better  for  the  student  as  he  proceeds  through 
his  high-school  history  course  to  become  progressively  efficient 
in  each  of  the  four  proposed  stages  as  he  moves  forward 
term  by  term.  These  reflections  on  Judd's  proposed  solution 
of  the  problem  of  progress  within  the  subject  of  history  will 
serve  to  call  attention  to  its  complexity  and  probably  suggest 
some  of  the  angles  of  approach  to  its  practical  solution. 

It  might  be  well,  at  this  stage  of  the  discussion,  to  examine 
some  of  the  chief  difficulties  connected  with  a  satisfactory 
working  out  of  our  problem.  To  the  writer's  thinking,  the 
following  are  the  chief  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  complete  and 
systematic  gradation  of  history  and  the  teaching  of  history  in 
the  high  school:  (i)  beyond  one  year,  the  subject  is  often 
elective;  (2)  the  required  history  is  usually  American,  given 
in  the  fourth  year;  (3)  school  administrators  have  a  notion 
that  history  can  be  used  as  a  filler ;  (4)  *the  subject  matter 
of  history  does  not  form  the  basis  of  a  systematic  progression 

1  Judd,  Psychology  of  High- School  Subjects,  pp.  456  f. 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  97 

as  it  does  in  some  other  subjects;  (5)  the  intangibleness  of 
the  results  to  be  obtained  from  the  study  of  history  perpet- 
uates an  indefiniteness  that  seems  to  elude  all  efforts  at 
gradation.  With  this  array  of  handicaps  to  face,  the  task- 
of  suggesting  a  workable  scheme  whereby  progress  within  the 
subject  of  high-school  history  can  be  secured  seems  an  almost 
impossible  one.  However,  the  task  is  not  so  formidable  as  it 
at  first  seems,  for  if  school  administrators  can  be  convinced 
that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  progression  within  the  subject 
of  history,  they  will  be  willing  to  remedy  some  of  the  present 
adverse  conditions. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  obstacles  to  the  application  of 
the  principle  of  progress  within  the  subject  of  history,  there 
are  certain  attending  difficulties  which  the  teachers  themselves 
will  have  to  overcome.  For  example,  the  American  Revolution 
is  now  commonly  taught  in  both  the  junior  and  the  senior 
high  school.  Suppose  the  same  individual  teaches  this  subject 
on  both  levels  of  instruction.  Will  he  have  the  courage  to  go 
before  the  senior  high-school  class  and  present  the  same  fact 
in  the  same  way  that  he  presented  it  to  the  class  in  the  junior 
high  school? 

Right  here  lies  the  crux  of  the  problem  of  gradation  in 
history.  Exactly  how  should  the  history  taught  in  the  third  \ 
or  fourth  years  of  the  traditional  high  school  differ  from  \ 
that  taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades ;  and  how  should  I 
the  senior  college  work  differ  from  that  of  the  last  year  of  the^^ 
high  school?  The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  too  often  the 
second  cycle  makes  little  or  no  advance  over  the  first,  and 
the  third  not  sufficient  over  the  second. 

The  measures  necessary  to  solve  all  these  perplexing 
difficulties  are  out  of  the  reach  of  an  individual  teacher. 
Possibly  in  time  our  history  courses  will  be  organized  with  a 
view  to  taking  care  of  this  phase  of  the  situation.  That  it  is 
a  problem  has  been  recognized  in  many  quarters.  The  History 
Teachers   Association   of   the   Middle   States   and   Maryland 


98  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

gave  considerable  attention  to  it  both  in  the  1906  and  in  the 
191 5  meetings.  In  the  latter  gathering  it  took  the  form  of  a 
consideration  of  the  differentiation  of  history  in  the  high 
school  from  history  in  the  elementary  school,  and  of 
history  in  the  college  from  history  in  the  high  school, 
illustrated  by  reference  to  the  causes  of  the  American 
Revolution.  The  papers  presented  on  this  occasion  worked  out 
in  some  detail  the  phases  of  the  subject  to  be  taught  in  each 
cycle.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  these  proposals  here.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  if  a  similar  treatment  of  all  the 
subjects  in  American  history  which  appear  in  both  the  junior 
and  the  senior  high-school  cycle  were  at  hand  and  as  familiar 
to  history  teachers  as,  let  us  say,  the  report  of  the  Committee  of 
Seven,  considerable  progress  would  have  been  made  in  remedy- 
ing some  notable  defects  in  present-day  history  teaching.^ 

The  solving  of  such  a  problem  as  the  differentiation  of 
history  in  the  high  school  from  history  in  the  elementary 
school,  and  of  history  in  the  college  from  history  in  the  high 
school,  demands  cooperative  effort,  hence  cannot  be  worked  out 
by  the  individual  teacher.  Since  this  is  true,  one  might  ask 
with  propriety.  What,  then,  can  an  individual  teacher  do  to 
secure  this  much- to-be-desired  progress  within  the  subject  of 
history?  The  answer  afforded  by  this  discussion  to  such  a 
question  is  this:  Any  teacher  can  plan  general  and  special 
methods  of  procedure  sufficiently  definite  and  so  correctly 
graded  as  to  secure  progress  within  the  subject  when  they  are 
applied.  Examples  of  what  is  meant  here  appear  below  in 
the  statements  of  a  general  method  of  procedure  in  teaching 
American  history  in  the  junior  and  senior  high  school  as  well 
as  similar  statements  for  ancient  and  European  history. 

1  Hedge,  "  Differentiation  of  the  Elementary  School  History  from  that 
of  the  High  School " ;  Dougherty,  "  Material  and  Treatment  for  a  Senior 
Class  in  the  High  School" ;  Spencer,  "  Material  and  Treatment  for  a  College 
Class,"  all  found  in  the  191 5  Proceedings  of  the  History  Teachers  Association 
of  the  Middle  States  and  Mafyland.  See  also  "  Differentiation  in  Treatment 
of  the  American  Revolution  in  Elementary  School,  High  School,  and 
College,"  by  A.  W.  Smith,  in  the  1906  Proceedings  of  the  same  association. 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  99 

Attaining  Progress  through  General  and  Special 
Methods  of  Procedure 

In  applying  a  method  of  procedure  in  junior  high-school 
American  history  which  purports  to  be  definite  enough  to 
make  possible  the  application  of  the  principle  of  progress 
within  this  subject  when  it  is  studied  again  in  the  senior  high 
school,  thg  fir<;t  fhmfr  npressarv  is  to  p;et  the  rgain  Hivic;i(;)ns 
of  the  field  before  the  class.  This  can  be  done  inductively 
with  the  textbook  in  tHenands  of  the  children.  If  the  textbook 
has  a  general  organization,  this  can  be  examined  and  discussed 
and  a  tentative  one  proposed.  In  the  course  of  a  week  or  so 
the  final  organization  can  be  determined  along  with  specific 
names  and  date  boundaries  for  each  main  division. 

Thp  <;prn^rl  ^fpp  is  to  formulate  in  story  forin  the  main  trend 
oUifL-llistctfy  contained  in  each  large  division.  In  most 
cases  it  will  be  better  for  tb^  tfa^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  this  story  to  the 
rbsf..  It  can  be  told  in  sections  from  day  to  day,  accompanied 
by  a  retelling  by  the  members  oFthe  class  as  their  paert  of  the 
advance  lesson.  When  each  pupil  is  able  to  tell  the  story 
from  beginning  to  end,  the  next  step  in  the  general  method  of 
procedure  may  be  taken. 

If  the  background  of  American  history  has  been  studied  in 
the  sixth  or  seventh  grade,  there  will  be  need  of  but  slight 
emphasis  on  the  period  of  m3C0very  and  exploration.  In 
fact,  the  story  already  learned  could  be  so  elaborated  as  to 
make  any  more  work  on  this  period  unnecessary.  However, 
since  physical  features  and  the  Indians  cannot  be  included 
in  the  story,  some  attention  will  need  to  be  given  to  these 
two  factors.  Considerable  time  will  be  spent  on  the  period 
from  1607  to  1763.  A  good  organization  for  it  is  to  deal  with 
the  English  colonies  in  three  groups  down  to  about  1700,  in- 
cluding a  cross-section  view  of  life  and  institutions  in  each 
group  at  the  latter  date.  The  progress  of  settlement  from 
1700  to  1754  may  be  treated  as  one  topic.    After  this  has  been 


100  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

concluded,  French  colonization  may  be  taken  from  the  begin- 
ning to  1754,  after  which  a  brief  consideration  of  the  French 
and  Indian  Wars  will  be  in  order.  The  study  of  the  period 
will  close  with  an  intensive  cross-section  view  of  colonial  life 
and  institutions  in  1763.  A  great  deal  of  time  may  be  profit- 
ably spent  on  this  cross-section  view.  Comparison  may  be 
made  with  present-day  conditions,  and  the  work  on  the  whole 
be  made  very  practical  and  interesting.  The  period  between 
1763  and  1789  may  be  treated  much  like  the  preceding  one. 
The  political  thread  running  through  it  will  be  considerably 
elaborated  as  compared  with  what  has  been  included  in  the 
overview  already  made.  The  major  part  of  the  time  spent  on 
this  period  will  be  devoted  to  a  survey  of  the  social,  economic, 
and  political  conditions  of  the  country  just  prior  to  1787, 
culminating  in  a  study  of  the  formation  and  ratification  of 
the  Constitution. 

Either  of  two  methods  of  procedure  may  be  followed  after 
the  year  1789.  When  the  teacher  has  made  sure  that  the 
pupils  understand  the  main  current  of  the  history  from  this 

kdate  to,  let  us  say,  1829,  certain  phases  of  life  running  through 
the  period  may  be  studied  in  some  detail,  for  example,  the 
social  progress  and  development,  including  a  study  of  intel- 
lectual life,  religious  activities,  social  and  moral  betterment, 
home  life  of  the  people,  and  conditions  of  labor  might  be 
emphasized,    ^^his  same  procedure  could  be  applied  equally 

)  well  to  the  periods  from  1829  to  1865,  from  1865  to  1898, 
and  from  1898  to  the  present  time. 

Such  a  method  of  procedure  as  proposed  in  the 'preceding 
paragraph  would  not  serve  equally  well  for  all  students  of 
history.  For  those  who  expect  to  complete  the  junior  high- 
school  course  such  a  method  might  be  profitably  followed; 
but  for  those  who  may  not  be  able  to  complete  the  course  there 
is  probably  a  better  way.  For  these  latter  and  for  those  who 
are  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  courses  a  good  plan  would 
be  first  to  go  over  the  main  features  of  all  the  periods  since 


PROGRESS  WITHIN"  THE  ^UBjfeCT'  loi 

1789  and  then  to  trace  the  history  of  a  few  important  topics 
from  their  origin  to  their  present  condition.^  For  example,  the 
history  of  agriculture,  manufacturing,  labor  systems,  and  the 
like  could  be  traced  from  their  simple  beginnings  in  colonial 
times  to  their  present-day  complexities.  Such  a  method  would 
give  the  teacher  all  the  freedom  necessary  to  adapt  the  course 
to  local  conditions  as  well  as  to  the  interests  and  capacities 
of  the  children.  In  the  working  up  of  these  topics  the  counter- 
chronological  method  of  approach  could  no  doubt  be  used  as 
effectively  as  the  chronological,  and  if  the  pupils  have  had  a 
course  in  European  history,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  counter- 
chronological  story  should  end  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Af    tVif^  rnnrlnci'nn    nf  tV>P  <;tl]r|Y   ^f  Cach  perjod    ^    ry^r^rt^   flflb"^- 

ruff^  c^|^r^7  nf  jl  ,';hmi1H  hp  |-prmin(pH  hy  t^e  ch\](]r}n^f\-nd  f\f  the 
end  of  the  course  the  whole  story  of  the  history  of  the  United 
States  should  be  formulated  with  all  the  elaborateness  that  the 
class  is  able  to  make.^  The  maps  made  during  the  year  may 
be  used  in  connection  with  the  telling  of  this  final  story,  the 
content  of  which  will  be  determined  by  the  sort  of  facts  the 
teacher  has  emphasized  as  the  course  progressed  from  day 
to  day. 

In  the  application  of  a  method  of  procedure  in  the  senior 
high-school  American  history  which  aims  to  be  an  advance 
over  the  foregoing,  the  first  thing  necessary  in  the  junior  high 
school  is  to  get  the  general  organization  of  the  field  to  be 
studied  before  the  class.  If  this  has  been  well  done  in  the 
lower  school,  little  time  will  be  needed  for  it  here,  since  it  will 
be  in  the  nature  of  a  review.  The  same  general  divisions  of 
the  field  for  teaching  purposes  that  were  used  in  the  junior 
high  school  are  to  be  employed  here.  This  means  that  the 
names  and  date  boundaries  of  these  divisions  must  be  exactly 
the  same  in  both  schools.  There  is  no  more  reason  for  senior 
high-school  pupils  learning  new  names  for  these  divisions  than 
for  their  learning  new  names  for  the  continents  and  the  funda- 
mental operations  in  arithmetic. 


10?  ;  ;/;  v;  ;fHf/  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

After  this  preliminary  work  has  been  well  done  and  each 
member  of  the  class  can  give  in  a  connected  form  an  over- 
view of  the  entire  field  in  the  form. of  a  story,  it  is  time  for 
the  second  step  in  the  method  herein  outlibed.  ^This  step 
should  begin  where  the  first  left  off,  namely,  with  the  present. 
Since  one  of  the  big  aims  of  the  course  in  American  history 
is  to  give  those  pursuing  it  an  understanding  of  the  present, 
a  survey  of  what  is  to  be  understood  is  essential.  Such  a 
survey  will  include  the  main  features  of  our  present  social 
structure  in  order  to  discover  what  some  of  the  things  are 
that  people  need  to  know  about  and  the  historical  knowledge 
necessary  to  understand  them  in  their  present  form.  While 
the  results  of  this  survey  of  our  present  social  structure  will 
not  be  exactly  the  same  in  any  two  localities,  the  following  list 
taken  from  Bobbitt's  What  the  Schools  Teach  and  Might 
Teach  certainly  includes  about  all  that  any  class  will  discover : 
sociological  aspects  of  war,  territorial  expansion,  race  problems, 
tariff  and  free  trade,  transportation,  money  systems,  our  in- 
sular possessions,  growth  of  population,  trusts,  banks  and  bank- 
ing, immigration,  capital  and  labor,  education,  inventions, 
suffrage,  centralization  of  government,  strikes  and  lockouts, 
panics  and  business  depressions,  commerce,  taxation,  manu- 
facturing, labor  unions,  foreign  commerce,  agriculture,  postal 
service,  army,  government  control  of  corporations,  municipal 
government,  navy,  factory  labor,  wages,  courts  of  law,  charities, 
crime,  fire  protection,  roads  and  road  transportation,  news- 
papers and  magazines,  national  defense,  conservation  of  natural 
resources,  liquor  problems,  parks  and  playgrounds,  housing 
conditions,  mining,  health  and  sanitation,  pensions,  unemploy- 
ment, child  labor,  women  in  industry,  cost  of  living,  pure-food 
control,  savings  banks,  water  supply  of  cities,  prisons,  recre- 
ations and  amusements,  cooperative  buying  and  selling,  insur- 
ance, and  hospitals. 

After  the  teacher  and  the  class  have  made  a  list  of  topics 
for  study  similar  to  this  one  of  Professor  Bobbitt's,  the  ones 


PROGRESS  WITHIN'  THE  SUBJECT  103 

most  conspicuous  in  the  life  of  their  own  community  can  be 
selected  for  intensive  study.  While  the  counter-chronological 
approach  to  each  topic  might  be  employed,  it  is  probably' 
more  practical  to  use  the  chronological  method.  Granting 
that  this  latter  method  is  used,  the  next  thing  in  order  is  to 
make  a  working  outline  of  the  particular  topic  chosen  for 
first  consideration.  The  text  in  the  hands  of  the  students 
should  be  the  chief  reliance  in  making  this  working  outline, 
and  when  it  is  finished  a  more  complete  one  made  by  the 
teacher  can  be  substituted  for  it.  On  the  completion  of  all 
this  preliminary  work  serious  study  of  the  topic  under  con- 
sideration can  be  undertaken.  As  many  topics  as  the  time 
devoted  to  the  course  will  permit  can  be  treated  in  this 
same  manner. 

Another  general  method  of  procedure  which  could  beiapplied 
equally  w^ll  in  the  teaching  of  American  history  in  the  senior 
high  school  is  this :  After  the  general  survey  of  the  entire  field 
to  be  covered  and  the  special  survey  of  the  main  features 
of  our  present-day  social  structure  have  been  completed,  some 
past  structures  of  American  society  might  be  studied  in  detail 
in  order  to  show  how  the  problems  of  living  were  worked  out 
in  the  different  stages  of  our  national  life.  Providing  the 
material  can  be  secured,  the  following  periods  in  our  history 
seem  most  worth  analyzing :  the  period  of  Revolution  and 
the  Establishment  of  the  American  Nation,  1 763-1 789;  the 
period  of  Expansion  and  Conflict,  1 82 9-1 86 5  ;  and  the  decade 
of  the  period  of  Reconstruction  and  Consolidation  following 
1880.  If  at  all  possible  a  detailed  cross-section  view  should 
be  taken  of  the  country  at  some  time  within  each  of  these  four 
periods.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  a  general  survey  of  the 
life  of  the  people  during  each  of  these  periods  may  be  made, 
for  which  no  material  other  than  that  found  in  the  text  is 
absolutely  necessary.  Of  course  the  completeness  of  the  sur- 
vey in  each  case  will  depend  upon  the  amount  and  quality  of 
the  material  at  hand. 


104  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

In  the  survey  of  the  period  beginning  with  1763,  the  colonies 
should  be  considered  in  a  threefold  group  and  in  a  twofold 
group ;  the  former  consisting  of  the  New  England  colonies, 
the  middle  colonies,  and  the  southern  colonies ;  and  the  latter 
of  the  seacoast  group  and  the  back-country  group.  All  phases 
of  the  life  of  the  people  in  each  of  these  groups  should  be 
considered.  Comparisons  and  contrasts  should  be  frequent, 
not  only  of  one  section  with  another  but  of  each  phase  of 
colonial  life  with  the  same  or  with  a  similar  phase  of  present- 
day  life. 

In  an  analysis  of  the  life  in  the  country  during  the  period 
between  1829  and  1865,  the  South,  the  West,  and  the  East 
may  be  used  as  units.  Such  an  analysis  would  yield  in  the  East 
a  transition  from  family-made  to  factory-made  goods,  the  in- 
creased importance  of  a  market  for  goods,  the  interrelations 
between  this  market  and  tariffs,  moneys,  transportation  and 
communication,  the  greater  specialization  in  diverse  industries, 
social  and  humanitarian  reforms,  the  movement  of  the  popula- 
tion from  rural  to  urban  communities,  and  the  beginnings  of 
important  educational  reforms.  In  the  South  such  things  as 
specialization  in  one  industry  only,  the  self-sufficiency  of  each 
plantation  worked  by  slave  labor,  the  general  control  by  the 
planter  aristocracy,  lack  of  adequate  educational  facilities, 
the  narrow  and  meager  existence  of  the  upland  people,  and  the 
evil  effects  of  the  factory  system  will  come  to  the  surface. 
The  self-sufficiency  of  frontier  life,  the  democratic  spirit,  man- 
hood suffrage,  the  movement  in  favor  of  public  education,  the 
need  for  adequate  transportation  and  communication  facilities, 
the  varied  industries  of  rural  villages,  and  the  demand  for 
free  land  will  be  noticed  in  an  analysis  of  the  West.  When  all 
these  analyses  have  been  worked  out,  comparisons  and  con- 
trasts can  be  made  with  colonial  times  and  present-day  con- 
ditions as  well. 

Generally  speaking,  an  analysis  of  the  life  and  activities 
of  the  country  during  the  eighties  would  reveal  a  general 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  105 

shifting  from  rural  to  urban  life  and  the  effects  of  these 
changes  upon  labor ;  a  mining-camp  frontier  life  in  the  West ; 
the  industrial  revolution  spreading  to  include  other  goods 
besides  textiles ;  the  coming  of  labor  organizations  ;  the  begin- 
nings of  large  industrial  combinations ;  the  passing  of  the 
frontier ;  the  coming  of  extreme  poverty  and  wealth ;  the 
beginnings  of  government  regulation;  the  great  interest  in 
railroad  building  ;  the  scientific  spirit  in  agriculture  ;  important 
educational  reforms  ;  and  the  like.  When  this  period  is  finished, 
some  time  should  be  spent  in  comparing  and  contrasting  the 
social  structure  of  the  country  at  the  time  each  survey  was 
made.  The  remainder  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  course  can 
be  profitably  spent  on  enlarging  the  general  overview  of 
American  history  which  each  student  is  supposed  to  have  when 
he  enters  the  course.  If  this  part  of  the  work  and  the  four 
surveys  herein  mentioned  are  done  well,  the  students  will  leave 
the  course  with  a  rather  definite  understanding  of  our  complex 
present-day  life  and  its  historical  antecedents. 

In  concluding  this  phase  of  the  discussion,  it  should  be  said 
that  where  a  teacher  in  the  senior  high  school  is  certain  that 
the  pupils  in  his  class  were  not  taught  according  to  the  method 
proposed  above  for  the  junior  high  school,  the  practical  thing 
for  him  to  do  is  to  use  the  junior  high-school  procedure  for 
his  senior  high-school  class.  There  is  no  use  in  trying  to  apply 
a  method  which  assumes  that  a  certain  thing  has  been  well 
done  unless  that  thing  has  really  been  accomplished.  The  fact 
in  the  case  is  that  when  pupils  in  the  junior  high  school  have 
been  taught  by  the  chapter-by-chapter  and  page-by-page  text- 
book method,  the  method  herein  proposed  for  them  would  be 
quite  an  advance  when  used  in  the  senior  high  school,  and  its 
use  would  be  in  conformity  with  the  principle  of  progress 
within  the  subject.  The  chief  points  to  make  in  this  whole 
matter  are  (i)  teachers  on  each  level  of  instruction  should 
have  a  rather  definite  general  method  of  procedure;  (2)  each 
should  know  the  metl]od  used  by  the  others;  and  (3)  when 


io6  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

American  history  is  taught  in  the  senior  high  school,  it  should 
be  on  the  senior  and  not  on  the  junior  high-school  level. 

Before  we  pass  to  another  phase  of  the  matter  of  progress 
within  the  subject  of  history,  a  general  method  of  procedure 
for  two  other  fields  of  history  ordinarily  taught  in  the  senior 
high  school  will  be  given.  First,  let  us  direct  our  attention 
to  the  field  of  ancient  history. 

In  ai^nt  history  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  work  out  with 
the  class,  text  in  hand,  the  general  organization  of  the  field 
to  be  used  in  teaching  the  subject^  Since  Greek  and  Roman 
history  usually  come  in  different  semesters,  the  organization 
of  the  Roman  field  could  be  left  until  the  beginning  of  the 
second  semester's  work.  After  each  general  division  has  been 
determined  upon,  named,  and  located  by  pages  within  the  text, 
and  some  general  notion  of  the  big  movements  in  each  division 
has  been  grasped  by  the  class,  attention  may  be  centered  upon 
the  first  of  these  general  divisions.  In  working  out  an  outline 
to  use  in  teaching  it,  use  the  text  in  about  the  same  manner 
in  which  it  was  employed  in  establishing  the  general  organiza- 
tion. The  outline  thus  worked  out,  as  well  as  all  work  previ- 
ously done,  should  be  placed  in  the  permanent  notebook.  On 
completing  the  first  teaching  division  of  the  subject,  the  next 
one  should  be  taken  up  and  treated  similarly.  However,  before 
leaving  any  particular  division,  the  class  should  devote  some 
time  to  viewing  it  as  a  whole  in  the  light  of  all  that  has  been 
learned  about  it.  Such  a  view  will  include  listing  and  learn- 
ing, if  they  have  not  been  previously  learned,  the  dates- 
events  to  be  remenibered,  and  the  personages  to  be  known 
which  fall  within  the  division.  It  will  also  include  a  review  of 
the  main  features  of  the  map  that  has  been  made  during  the 
study  of  the  division. 

This  general  method  of  procedure  in  teaching  ancient  his- 
tory takes  for  granted  that  the  teacher  has  a  general  and 
special  organization  of  the  field  already  worked  out  before  the 
course  begins.    It  also  assumes  that  he  knows  just  what  dates 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  107 

and  events  are  to  be  known,  what  personages  are  to  be 
identified,  and  what  maps  are  to  be  made  in  each  division  on 
beginning  the  course,  or  at  least  before  serious  work  on  it 
commences.  The  method  is  apphcable  whether  one  is  teaching 
ancient  history  down  to  about  800  a.d.  or  European  history 
from  the  earHest  time  to  1648  or  1700.  It  has  previously  been 
briefly  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  textbook  method. 

In  the  teaching,  of  medieval  and  modern  historyyor  European 
history  since  about  1648  or  1700  the  same  general  plan  can 
be  followed  as  in  ancient  history,  i^rst,  the  general  organi- 
zation of  the  field  for  teaching  purposes  will  be  established 
with  the  textbook  open  before  the  clasaJ^'A'fter  this  is  done 
it  will  be  possible  t6'*'iormulate  in  story  form  the  main  cur- 
rents of  European  history  since  800  a.d.  or  1648,  as  the  case 
may  be^  In  practice  the  teacher  had  better  tell  this  story 
to  the  class,  demanding  a  retelling  by  each  member  in  so  far  as 
this  is  possible.  The  story  could  be  written  with  profit  by  each 
student  and  placed  in  his  permanent  notebook  for  future  use. 

When  this  preliminary  work  has  been  thoroughly  done,  the 
first  period  will  be  taken  up  and  treated  as  the  first  period  in 
ancient  history  was  treated,  with  the  additional  requirement 
that  each  student  know  a  much  longer  story  of  it  than  the  orig- 
inal one.  Each  succeeding  period  will  be  similarly  treated, 
emphasis  being  laid  on  the  dates  and  events  to  be  known,  the 
personages  to  be  identified,  and  the  maps  to  be  made  in  each 
period.  Time  enough  should  be  left  for  a  long  story  of  the 
entire  field  to  be  told  at  the  end  of  the  course. 

If  the  teacher  has  sufficient  library  facilities,  there  is 
another  method  of  procedure  in  teaching  the  two  fields  under 
discussion  here  which  could  be  effectively  employed,  especially 
if  the  desire  is  to  focus  the  attention  of  the  class  on  the 
historical  movements  necessary  for  an  intelligent  understanding 
of  present-day  European  life  and  activities.  Using  the  method 
contemplated  here,  the  teacher  would  begin  the  course  just  as 
when  using  the  preceding  one,  that  is,  by  getting  the  general 


io8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

organization  of  the  field  to  be  taught  before  the  class,  using 
the  text  as  a  basis ;  the  short  story  of  the  entire  field  would  also 
be  told  by  the  teacher  and  learned  by  the  students.  In  the 
case  of  the  traditional  medieval  and  modern  history,  it  would 
be  better  to  touch  lightly  at  the  beginning  of  the  course  on  the 
periods  to  be  covered  the  second  semester,  reserving  this  se- 
mester for  an  intensive  application  of  the  method  herein  con- 
tem.plated.  The  procedure  outlined  above  for  the  entire  field  of 
medieval  and  modern  history  should  be  used  the  first  semester. 
Now,  after  this  necessary  preliminary  work  has  been  com- 
pleted, the  second  step  in  the  application  of  the  method  under 
consideration  can  be  taken.  ,  This  includes  an  examination  of 
the  main  features  of  the  social  structure  of  the  leading  Euro- 
pean countries  in  and  after  19 14.  England,  Russia,  France, 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  Balkan  States  are  the 
countries  which  should  receive  chief  attention  in  this  survey, 
which  should  cover  topics  like  the  following  in  so  far  as  they 
apply  to  the  countries  surveyed :  chief  industries,  government, 
colonies  and  dependencies,  religion,  education,  poverty  and 
wealth,  transportation  facilities,  the  land  and  its  resources,  the 
people,  rural  and  urban  life,  autocracy,  democracy,  and  social- 
ism. When  this  work  is  completed,  either  of  two  methods  of 
procedure  might  be  followed.  One  would  be  to  take  up  a 
historical  consideration  of  each  of  the  leading  European  coun- 
tries separately,  beginning  with  either  France  or  England  and 
emphasizing  the  historical  development  of  the  topics  included 
in  the  preliminary  survey.  After  each  nation  has  been  viewed 
in  this  manner,  some  time  should  be  spent  in  a  comparative 
study,  with  a  view  to  discovering  the  underlying  causes  of  the 
World  War.i 

1  H.  E.  Tuell,  "The  Study  of  Nations,"  History  Teachei's  Magazine,  VIII, 
264  ff .,  for  an  excellent  outline  for  studying  each  of  the  nations  mentioned 
above.  For  an  elaborate  discussion  of  the  same  subject  see  Tuell,  The 
Study  of  Nations — An  Experiment  in  Social  Education,  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  1919.  This  work  contains  additional  outlines  for  studying  China, 
Japan,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Turkey,  and  the  Balkan  States. 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  109 

Another  way  of  proceeding  after  making  the  preliminary 
survey  of  the  leading  European  nations  is  to  focus  the  atten- 
tion on  historical  movements  relating  to  the  whole  of  Europe 
rather  than  to  center  it  on  individual  nations.  In  the  applica- 
tion of  the  scheme  such  topics  as  the  rise  of  nationality, 
the  struggle  for  constitutional  government,  industrial  changes, 
the  socialistic  movement,  economic  theory  and  reform,  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  and  the  enthusiasm  for  natural  science, 
educational  reforms,  and  religious  conditions  would  be  treated 
historically  as  they  apply  to  the  whole  of  Europe.  In  other 
words,  in  teaching  the  course  the  attention  would  be  focused 
on  large  movements  and  transformations  as  they  apply  to  the 
whole  of  Europe  rather  than  on  individual  nations  as  in  the 
case  mentioned  above.  For  example,  in  the  study  of  the  social- 
istic movement,  the  general  organization  projected  at  the 
beginning  of  the  course  would  serve  as  the  background,  and 
the  progress  and  conditions  of  the  movement  would  be  consid- 
ered, in  each  country  during  the  various  periods  included  in 
the  general  organization  of  the  entire  field.  It  should  be  said 
in  passing  that  both  of  these  last-mentioned  methods  are 
applications  of  the  topical  method  described  in  a  previous 
chapter,  the  topics  in  the  one  case  being  the  various  nations 
surveyed  and  in  the  other  the  big  movements  applying  to 
Europe  as  a  whole. 

So  far  in  this  discussion  but  one  angle  of  the  problem  of 
progress  within  the  subject  of  history  has  been  considered, 
namely,  securing  progress  through  a  general  method  of  pro- 
cedure for  the  different  levels  of  instruction.  The  problem  one 
must  now  face  is  how  to  secure  progress  from  year  to  year  in 
the  junior  or  senior  high  school.  The  answer  to  the  question  is 
this:  Progress  within  the  subject  of  history  in  either  of  these 
schools  must  be  secured  by  what  might  be  termed  special 
requirements  and  specific  objectives  as  well  as  set  ways  of 
covering  the  various  phases  of  the  work  in  each  year  history  is 
taught.   The  following  outline  will  illustrate  what  is  meant  here : 


no  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

AN  OUTLINE  OF  PROGRESSIVE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  SENIOR 
HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  CLASSES 

I.  First  year  of  the  senior  high  school  (loth  year). 

1.  Recitation  by  topic. 

a.  Pupils  present  the  facts  in  a  one-minute  or  two-minute 

oral  recitation. 
h.  Pupils  answer  interpretative  and  review  questions  put 

by  the  teacher. 

2.  Assignments. 

a.  Full  outline  of  the  work  given  by  teacher  at  first  with 

definite  instructions  relative  to  its  preparation. 

b.  Later,  student  may  make  his  own  outline  after  consider- 

able attention  has  been  given  to  such  work  during 
the  progress  of  the  course. 

3.  Supplementary  reading  to  include : 

a.  An  account  paralleling  that  of  the  text. 

h.  A  short  special  treatment  of  some  topic  in  the  lesson. 

c.  Short  biographies. 

d.  Limited  number  of  source  readings. 

4.  Report  on  supplementary  reading  in  the  form  of : 

a.  Oral  recitation  of  from  two  to  three  minutes  in  length 

on  special  topics. 

b.  Outline,  synopsis,  or  summary  handed  in. 

c.  Contributions  during  the  class  period  based  on  parallel 

readings. 

5.  Permanent  notebook  exercises,  such  as : 

a.  One-paragraph   themes   on   topics   related   to   the    daily 

work. 

b.  Short  biographical  sketches  of  representative  historical 

personages. 

c.  OutHnes  given  by  the  teacher  or  made  by  the  pupil. 

d.  Concrete  exercises  based  on  source  material. 

e.  Pictures  and  edited  clippings. 

/.  Copied  illustrations  and  drawings. 

g.  Tabulations  and  comparisons. 

h.  Outline  maps  filled  in. 

i.    Graphic  representations  made  by  the  pupil. 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  iii 

6.  Oral   recitations    of   from   twenty   to   twenty-five   minutes 

on  important  periods  of  history  after  they  have  been 
studied  in  class. 

7.  One-minute  or  two-minute  oral  reports  on  current  topics. 
II.  Second  year  of  the  senior  high  school  (nth  year). 

1.  Topical  recitation  involving  on  the  part  of  the  pupil : 

a.  A  rather  elaborate  and  continuous  treatment  of  a  topic. 

b.  An  application  of  his  knowledge  through  answers  to  the 

teacher's    questions    involving    causes,    effects,    and 
interpretations. 

2.  Assignments. 

a.  Usually  in  the  form  of  a  guidance  outline  based  on  text. 

b.  Definite  outside  reading  to  elaborate  the  guidance  outline. 

3.  Supplementary  reading  to  include : 

a.  An  account  paralleling  that  of  the  text. 

b.  A  fuller  parallel  account. 

c.  A   special    treatment   of   a   topic    connected   with   the 

recitation  of  the  day. 

d.  Source  extracts. 

e.  Current  literature. 

4.  Reports  on  supplementary  reading  in  the  form  of : 

a.  Contributions  during  class  discussion. 

b.  Oral  recitations  of  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes  in  length 

on  some  one  topic. 

c.  Outline  handed  in. 

5.  Permanent  notebook  exercises,  such  as : 

a.  One-page  or  two-page  themes  on  topics  closely  related  to 

the  daily  work. 

b.  Synopses  of  brief  selections  of  source  material. 

c.  Answers    to    search   questions    on    secondary    or    source 

material. 

d.  Characterizations  and   summaries   of  periods   or  move- 

ments. 

e.  Outhne  maps  filled  in. 

/.  Tabulations  and  comparisons. 

g.  Synopses  or  outlines  or  reports  made  in  class  by  other 

pupils. 
h.  Notes  on  lectures  given  by  the  teacher, 
i.    Reports  on  contemporary  events. 


112  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

6.  Oral  recitations  extending  over  the  whole  of  the  recitation 

on  important  periods  previously  studied  in  class. 

7.  Oral  report  on  current  topics,  based  on  the  reading  of  a 

number  of  stories  of  the  same  event. 
III.  Third  year  of  the  senior  high  school  (12th  year). 

1.  Topical  recitation  mth  emphasis  on  longitudinal  treatment. 

2.  Assignments. 

a.  Usually  in  the  form  of  a  guidance  outhne  of  each  topic 

studied. 

b.  Definite  references  to  read  on  each  phase  of  the  topic. 

3.  Supplementary  reading  to  include : 

a.  An  account  parallehng  that  of  the  text. 
6.  A  fuller  parallel  account. 

c.  A  special  treatment  of  a  topic  or  period. 

d.  Source  material. 

e.  Biographies. 

/.  Current  hterature. 

4.  Report  on  supplementary  reading  in  the  form  of : 

a.  Contributions  during  the  class  discussion. 

b.  Oral  reports  on  topics  specially  assigned. 

c.  Cards  handed  in  showing  kind  and  amount  of  reading 

done. 

5.  Temporary  notebook  exercises  to  include : 

a.  Outline  of  work  given  by  the  teacher. 

b.  Voluntary  notes  on  reading  done. 

c.  Sketch  maps  for  use  in  daily  recitation. 

d.  Summaries  made  in  class. 

e.  Notes  on  lectures  given  by  the  teacher  and  reports  made 

by  other  members  of  the  class. 
/.  A  few  outline  maps  filled  in. 
g.  BibHographical  material. 
h.  Charts,  graphs,  and  similar  materials. 

6.  Oral  recitation  extending  over  one  or  more  recitations  on 

important  periods  previously  studied  in  class. 

7.  An  elaborate  term  paper,  prepared  according  to  the  follow- 

ing plan : 
a.  Select  subject  not  later  than  the  second  week  of  the 
semester,  the  selection  to  be  voluntary  from  a  list 
proposed  by  the  teacher. 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  113 

b.  Class   sets   dates    for   the   reading   to   be   finished,    the 

general  outline,  the  first  copy,  and  the  final  copy  to 
be  handed  in. 

c.  Spend  some  time  each  week  in  discussing  the  progress 

made,  difficulties  encountered,  and  the  technic  of 
footnote  references.  Develop  inductively  a  set  of 
rules  for  the  latter. 

d.  Each  pupil  hands  in  once  a  week  his  notes  on  the  read- 

ing done  for  his  paper.    These  notes  to  be  kept  by  the 
teacher  and  returned  when  enough  reading  has  been 
>   completed. 

e.  The  week  following  the  return  of  the  notes  an  outline 

based  on  them  is  to  be  made  by  each  pupil.     This 

is  approved  by  the  teacher  and  returned. 
/.  The    first    copy   of    the   paper   comes   in   on   the    date 

previously  set  by  the  class. 
g.  If  necessary,  the  first  copy  is  returned  and  a  final  one 

comes  in  on  the  date  previously  set. 
h.  Papers  as  a  rule  are  not  to  be  read  in  class,  since  much 

of    the    material    will   have   been    used    during    the 

progress  of  the  course. 

8.  During  the  second  semester  a  paper  should  be  written  on 

some  current  pohtical,  economic,  social,  or  civic  topic. 
This  work  should  be  done  rather  independently. 

9.  Previous  training  in  reading  and  reporting  on  current  topics 

should  be  utilized.    The  current  problem  work  should  be 
carried  on  almost  exclusively  in  this  manner. 

A  mere  glance  through  this  outline  reveals  the  fact  that 
progress  is  secured  through  increased  ability  to  do___c_ert.ain 
things  relative  to  the  work  rather  than  by  mere  knowledge  as 
is~the~case  in  some  subjects.  He  would  be  a  pupil  of  rather 
unusual  ability  who  could  enter  the  third  year  of  history  and  do 
the  work  according  to  the  method  outlined  above  who  had  not 
had  the  training  secured  from  the  first  two  years'  work  as 
proposed.  For  example,  in  the  writing  of  the  term  paper  the 
student  applies  all  his  previous  training  in  historical  reading 
and  note-taking  as  well  as  the  technic  of  footnote  references 


114  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

which  he  has  gradually  mastered.  It  would  also  be  quite 
difficult  for  the  newcomer  into  the  third-year  class  to  recite 
consecutively  and  logically  for  two  class  periods  without  notes 
unless  he  had  had  the  training  which  the  first  two  years  of  the 
history  work  aim  to  give.  Neither  could  a  newcomer  do  the 
type  of  outside  reading  demanded  in  the  third-year  course 
without  the  ability  developed  by  the  two  years  of  training  in 
such  work.  And,  finally,  it  would  be  an  extraordinary  student 
who  could  prepare  independently  the  type  of  paper  required 
during  the  last  semester  of  the  history  work,  as  well  as  do  the 
type  of  daily  work  demanded  in  this  course. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  hands  of  some  teachers  the 
method  of  procedure  outlined  above  would  become  stereotyped 
and  formal,  thus  making  the  work  lifeless  and  of  little  value. 
It  is  also  quite  possible  that  the  progressive  standards  of  at- 
tainment demanded  in  each  year  might  be  so  vague  and 
indefinite  in  the  mind  of  a  teacher  that  a  pupil  could  move 
along  through  the  course  without  progressing  in  his  ability 
to  do  the  things  which  the  outline  demands.  To  overcome 
these  potential  difficulties  the  teacher  will  need  only  to  vary  the 
recitation  procedure  as  the  occasion  requires  and  let  the  class 
set  the  standard  according  to  the  exactions  made  by  the  outline. 
It  is  the  writer's  conviction  that  the  outline  itself  presents 
sufficient  opportunities  for  variation  to  prevent  the  plan  from 
becoming  formal  and  lifeless. 

There  are  two  other  ways  by  which  progress  within  the 
subject  of  history  could  be  secured.  Neither  of  them,  how- 
ever, could  be  worked  out  and  applied  by  a  teacher  working 
alone,  hence  they  are  merely  mentioned  here  because  the 
discussion  has  in  mind  presenting  something  definite  and 
concrete  for  the  individual  teacher.  These  two  ways  are 
( I )  by  a  close  organization  of  topics  presented  in  two  or  more 
of  the  cycles  so  that  a  higher  type  of  ability  would  be 
demanded  on  each  level ;  ( 2 )  by  an  organization  and  selection 
of  the  topics  in  each  cycle  so  that  there  will  be  little  or  no 


PROGRESS  WITHIN  THE  SUBJECT  115 

repetition,  thus  making  it  possible  for  the  child  in  the  seventh 
grade  to  study  one  set  of  topics  relative  to  the  Revolutionary- 
War,  the  high-school  senior  another  set,  and  the  college  student 
another,  all  so  organized  that  the  second  cycle  could  not  be 
done  successfully  without  a  knowledge  of  the  first,  and  the 
last  without  a  knowledge  of  the  first  two.  While  we  are 
waiting  for  cooperative  effort  to  secure  progress  through  these 
last  two  methods,  the  individual  teacher  will  have  to  secure 
this  much-to-be-desired  result  through  his  method  of  procedure 
day  by  day  and  term  by  term. 

ADDITIONAL  READING   MATTER 

Hedge,  Dougherty,  and  Spencer.  "The  Differentiation  of  History  in 
the  Elementary  School,  and  of  History  in  College  from  History 
in  the  High  School,  Illustrated  by  Reference  to  the  Causes  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  Proceedings  of  the  Association  of  History 
Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland^  No.  13  (i9i5),pp.  54  ff. 

Johnson,  Henry.  "  The  Problem  of  Grading  History,"  in  The  Teaching 
~~o]  History  in  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools,  chap.  il. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  191 5. 

Smith,  A.  W.  "  Differentiation  in  Treatment  of  the  American  Revolution 
in  Elementary  School,  High  School,  and  College,"  Proceedings  of 
the  Association  of  History  Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and  Mary- 
land (March,  1906),  pp.  29  ff. 

Smith,  E.  E.  "Gradation  of  High-School  Work  in  History,"  Ohio  His- 
tory Teachers*  Journal,  Bulletin  No,  3  (November,  1916),  pp.  103  ff. 

TuELL,  Harriet  E.  "The  Study  of  Nations — An  Experiment,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  Vlll  (1917),  264  ff. 

TuELL,  Harriet  E.  The  Study  of  Nations — An  Experiment  in  Social 
Education.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1919. 

Washburn,  G.  A.  "Gradation  of  High-School  Work  in  History,"  Ohio 
History  Teachers*  Journal,  Bulletin  No.  3  (November,  I9i6),pp.  95  ff. 


CHAPTER  VI 
WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY 

Written  work  in  one  form  or  other  occupies  a  very  prominent 
place  in  present-day  high-school  teaching.  In  the  foreign  lan- 
guages, written  exercises  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception ; 
in  the  natural  and  physical  sciences,  experiments  are  carefully 
written  up  and  filed  away  for  safekeeping  in  the  permanent 
notebook;  in  English,  short  written  themes  are  sometimes 
required  daily  and  longer  ones  weekly ;  and  in  history,  out- 
lines, synopses,  summaries,  and  other  forms  of  written  exer- 
cises are  required  in  all  phases  of  the  work.  This  prevalent 
use  of  formal  written  work  in  present-day  high-school  teaching 
makes  the  subject  of  prime  importance  to  teachers,  and  inas- 
much as  the  history  teachers  have  a  function  to  perform  in  the 
matter  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  teachers  in  other 
departments,  it  becomes  necessary  for  them  to  give  the  sub- 
ject especial  consideration. 

While  the  English  teacher  in  the  required  written  work  is 
most  concerned  with  the  problem  of  teaching  how  to  write, 
the  history  teacher  is  interested  in  the  proper  application  of 
what  the  student  already  knows  about  the  fundamentals  of 
written  English.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  the  his- 
tory teacher  will  neglect  the  matter  of  training  in  note-taking, 
a  type  of  work  much  used  in  history  teaching  and  of  sufficient 
importance  to  deserve  special  attention. 

Training  in  History  Note-Taking 

It  may  be  necessary  at  the  outset  for  the  history  teacher  to 
emphasize  the  need  and  value  of  training  in  note-taking  in  the 
ordinary  walk  of  life.  He  can  do  this  by  calling  the  attention 
of  his  pupils  to  the  practical  value  and  actual  use  of  this 

ii6 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     117 

training  in  present-day  business  and  professional  activities.  The 
trained  physician  works  out  from  his  reference  books  the 
treatment  of  cases  which  are  peculiar  and  tabulates  the  results 
in  a  form  which  he  can  use  in  his  tentative  and  final  diag- 
noses; the  minister  each  week  works  up  sermons  and  ad- 
dresses, in  the  process  of  which  much  use  is  made  of  notes; 
business  men  are  each  year  developing  more  and  more  complete 
and  elaborate  systems  of  recording,  classifying,  and  unifying 
the  various  items  of  their  business ;  the  farmer  systematizes 
his  methods  of  feeding  and  breeding  hogs  and  cattle,  crop 
rotations,  and  the  like,  all  of  which  are  the  outcome  of  careful 
and  methodical  reading  and  recording  the  results  of  this 
reading  along  with  his  own  experience ;  the  housekeeper  also 
applies  training  in  note-taking  by  arranging  in  an  orderly 
manner  the  results  of  her  reading  in  books,  magazines,  and 
journals  and  using  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  in  running 
her  household.  In  truth  the  great  majority  of  persons  in 
civilized  pursuits  have  need  of  and  actually  use  training  in 
note-taking.  Even  high-school  history  students  sometimes 
discover  their  need  of  and  the  value  of  such  training.  A 
graduate  of  an  eastern  high  school,  subsequently  becoming  a 
traveling  salesman,  wrote  his  history  teacher  to  the  effect 
that  of  all  his  high-school  training  he  considered  that  which  he 
attained  in  his  history  course. of  most  value  to  him,  for  it  was 
the  actual  and  systematic  training  in  note-taking  received  in 
the  history  classes  that  he  was  daily  using  in  planning  his 
routes,  organizing  his  territory,  and  classifying  his  customers. 
Of  course,  this  is  an  extreme  case,  but  it  illustrates  the  point 
under  consideration  here. 

Before  the  history  teacher  can  guide  any  effective  work  in 
note-taking  in  his  subject,  he  will  need  to  clarify  his  own 
thinking  as  to  the  purposes  and  uses  of  the  notes  which  he  is 
to  have  his  pupils  take.  Note-taking  as  a  form  of  busy  work  in 
history  teaching  is  intolerable.  Historical  notes  must  be  for 
some  specific  intent  and  subsequently  used.     Some  justifiable 


Ii8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

purposes  are:  (i)  to  give  actual  practice  in  the  application 
of  knowledge  acquired  in  the  English  classes;  (2)  to  teach 
pupils  how  to  perform  the  types  of  written  work  which  are 
peculiar  to  history ;  and  (3)  to  give  the  pupils  the  opportunity 
to  use  historical  terms  and  expressions  which  should  become 
habitual.  The  uses  to  be  made  of  the  notes  taken  from  day 
to  day  may  be  spoken  of  as  specific  and  general.  The  former 
includes  such  uses  as  for  the  next  recitation,  the  writing 
of  a  long  or  short  theme,  the  making  of  an  oral  report,  and 
reviewing  for  examinations.  The  general  uses  are  to  preserve 
a  record  for  possible  future  use,  to  fix  the  subject  in  mind 
by  the  effort  required  to  make  the  notes,  and  to  preserve  a 
record  of  the  reading  done  outside  of  the  text.  If  the  teacher 
can  convince  his  pupils  as  the  work  moves  along  from  day  to 
day  that  the  notes  they  are  taking  are  and  will  be  of  real 
and  actual  value  to  them,  note-taking  will  assume  an  effective- 
ness unknown  in  a  class  where  the  pupils  feel  that  they  are 
doing  the  written  work  to  satisfy  the  whimsical  desires  of  a 
pedantic  teacher. 

The  history  teacher  may  or  may  not  need  to  give  attention 
to  the  technic  of  note-taking,  such  as  form,  punctuation,  the 
meaning  of  guidance  and  information  outlines,  synopsis,  sum- 
mary, and  digest,  and  the  use  of  abbreviations.  In  an  ideal 
situation  the  pupils  would  learn  this  technic  in  English  and 
apply  it  in  history.  When  such  nearly  ideal  conditions  do 
not  exist,  the  history  teacher  will  need  to  give  some  attention 
both  to  the  technic  of  note-taking  and  to  its  application. 
In  making  his  plans  to  teach  this  work,  he  will  be  materially 
aided  by  such  books  as  Seward's  Note-Taking,  Kitson's  How 
to  use  your  Mind,  and  Slater's  Freshman  Rhetoric.  The 
first-named  of  these  books,  as  the  title  suggests,  is  devoted 
entirely  to  the  subject;  each  of  the  last  two  has  a  chapter 
devoted  to  note-taking. 

After  going  through  the  foregoing  or  similar  material  in 
order  to  fix  in  his  own  mind  certain  points  relative  to  the 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     119 

technic  of  note-taking,  the  teacher  will  be  ready  to  give 
actual  assistance  to  his  pupils  along  this  line.  Some  of  the 
practical  things  that  he  can  do  for  them  are  (i)  give  them 
actual  training  in  the  making  of  outlines,  summaries,  and 
briefs,  in  the  taking  of  direct  quotations,  and  in  paraphrasing ; 
(2)  afford  opportunities  for  a  great  amount  of  actual  practice 
in  doing  the  various  types  of  written  work  used  in  carrying  out 
the  daily  routine;  (3)  furnish  occasions  for  practice  in  taking 
notes  on  lectures  given  by  himself  and  reports  made  by  the 
pupils;  (4)  develop  and  decide  upon  a  footnote-reference 
technic  to  be  used  in  writing  long  themes  and  term  reports. 
Not  all  of  these,  however,  should  be  attempted  in  any  one 
semester.  They  are  listed  in  the  order  best  to  follow  in 
carrying  them  out. 

In  giving  actual  training  in  the  making  of  outlines,  sum- 
maries, and  briefs  and  in  the  taking  of  direct  quotations  the 
text  should  be  used  as  the  basis.  Since  the  making  of  an 
outline  is  relatively  an  easy  matter,  instruction  and  practice 
in  it  should  precede  all  other  work  of  this  nature.  A  little 
time  devoted  to  the  problem  every  day  will  soon  result  in  con- 
siderable efficiency.  At  first  the  work  will  take  the  form  of 
a  cooperative  effort,  the  teacher  and  pupils  working  together 
with  books  open.  After  the  pupils  begin  to  see  what  a  guid- 
ance outline  really  is  they  can  be  assigned  certain  portions 
of  the  text  to  outline  from  day  to  day.  Two  or  three  of  these 
outlines  may  be  placed  on  the  board  and  used  as  a  basis  for 
discussing  the  matter  in  class.  As  soon  as  some  ability  in 
the  making  of  a  guidance  outline  is  attained  attention  should 
be  centered  upon  the  information  outline.  The  same  method 
of  procedure  may  be  followed  in  this  work  as  was  followed  in 
teaching  how  to  make  a  guidance  outline. 

The  foregoing  is  likewise  a  good  method  of  teaching  what  is 
meant  by  summaries  and  briefs,  and  in  teaching  how  to 
determine  what  is  worth  quoting.  The  text  will  often  contain 
concrete  examples  of  summaries.    When  it  does  they  can  be 


120  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

studied  and  their  chief  characteristics  noted.  Since  a  brief  is 
an  information  outline  considerably  expanded,  it  might  be 
approached  through  this  channel.  Some  of  the  information 
outlines  previously  made  might  well  be  expanded  into  briefs. 
Paraphrasing  and  taking  direct  quotations  are  closely  related. 
One  might  think  of  the  first  as  saying  in  one's  own  words 
the  gist  of  what  has  been  said  by  another ;  while  the  second, 
of  course,  is  taking  the  exact  words,  punctuation  and  all, 
which  a  writer  uses.  Training  in  both  of  these  should  first 
be  given  with  books  open ;  later  applications  should  be  made 
first  with  textbook  material,  and  still  later  in  connection  with 
collateral  reading. 

Actually  writing  a  number  of  examples  of  the  various  types 
of  written  work  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  in  order 
to  make  sure  that  he  can  apply  his  training  in  note- taking. 
Inasmuch  as  this  phase  of  the  work  is  so  closely  related  to 
that  of  training  in  notd-taking,  it  may  be  dismissed  without 
further  comment.  Taking  notes  on  lectures  given  by  the 
teacher  and  on  special  reports  made  in  the  class  by  individual 
students,  however,  is  a  different  matter  and  should  receive  con- 
siderable attention  in  class  exercises  before  actual  practice  in 
it  is  begun.  One  good  way  to  begin  is  for  the  teacher  to 
prepare  a  few  well-organized  lectures  on  topics  directly  related 
to  the  daily  work.  At  first  it  may  be  best  to  place  on  the 
blackboard  a  guidance  outline  of  the  lecture ;  later  the  pupils 
will  be  expected  to  discover  the  main  and  subordinate  points 
as  the  lecture  proceeds.  After  a  few  exercises  of  this  nature, 
individual  pupils  may  be  asked  to  make  reports  to  the 
class  on  topics  closely  related  to  the  work  of  the  day.  In 
beginning  this  work  it  may  be  best  to  have  before  the  class  a 
brief  outline  of  what  the  pupil  is  going  to  say  to  serve  as 
a  guide  in  note- taking.  The  notes  taken  on  these  reports 
should  be  incorporated  into  the  general  outline  of  the  lesson 
for  the  day,  which  the  pupil  in  the  most  cases  will  have 
before  him. 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     121 

While  some  attention  should  be  given  to  footnote-reference 
technic  as  the  history  work  proceeds  from  semester  to  semester, 
what  is  meant  By  developing  and  deciding  upon  a  footnote- 
reference  technic  to  use  in  writing  long  themes  and  term  re- 
ports should  not  be  attempted  until  late  in  the  student's  career 
in  the  high-school  history  department.  This  work  should  be 
done  in  connection  with  the  writing  of  a  term  paper,  the  details 
of  which  are  considered  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

Types  of  Formal  Written  Work 

The  types  of  formal  written  work  to  be  considered  here 
are  outlines,  briefs,  short  themes  on  historical  topics,  im- 
aginary diaries,  imaginary  letters  and  editorials,  notes  on 
lectures  and  reports,  digests  or  abstracts  of  collateral  reading, 
direct  quotations,  comparative  statements,  bibliographies,  sum- 
maries, and  brief  statements  relating  to  the  life"  and  work  of 
historical  personages.  As  the  student  passes  through  the  work 
outlined  in  the  entire  field  of  high-school  history,  he  should 
be  given  an  opportunity  to  do  some  formal  written  work  along 
each  of  these  lines.  This  work  should  be  marked  by  the 
teacher,  and  the  results  should  be  incorporated  into  the  scheme 
for  determining  final  grades. 

If  at  all  possible,  concrete  examples  of  the  various  types  of 
formal  written  work  should  be  shown  to  the  class.  By  keepy- 
ing  a  few  of  the  best  representatives  of  each  type  written  from 
year  to  year  the  teacher  will  soon  have  an  abundance  of  this 
kind  of  illustrative  material  at  his  command.  To  make  sure 
that  the  beginning  teacher  will  have  at  least  some  of  this  con- 
crete material,  a  few  examples  are  included  here.  These 
include  an  imaginary  diary,  two  short  themes,  an  imaginary 
editorial,  and  some  imaginary  letters.  The  reader  will  observe 
that  some  of  the  examples  contain  mistakes  both  in  history 
and  in  English.  The  experienced  teacher,  however,  will  under- 
stand the  appearance  of  the  errors  when  he  knows  that  the 
examples  represent  the  first  efforts  of  the  writers. 


122 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


DIARY  OF  THE  PRINCESS  MARY 


Windsor 
Castle 

England  Year 
of  I47S. 


Paris  France 
In  the  Year 
1509. 


I,  the  Princess  Mary,  sister  to  the  reigning  king, 
Henry  VIII,  and  daughter  of  the  house  of  Tudor, 
have  resolved  to  keep  a  diary,  mainly  to  set  down  in 
black  and  white  the  evil  doings  of  my  burly  brother, 
"The  King." 

During  this  month  he  and  his  ''butcher"  Wolsey 
have  taken  it  into  their  heads  to  make  the  King  head 
of  the  church  as  well  as  of  the  state.  For,  thus  only 
will  our  sovereign  be  able  to  divorce  honest,  homely 
Catherine,  and  marry  foolish  Httle  Anne  Boleyn.  I 
called  Wolsey  a  "butcher"  for  I  utterly  despise  the 
fellow  and  his  father  was  a  butcher.  But  I,  for  my 
own  sake,  must  treat  him  royally.  For  I  am  near 
exhausted  trying  to  keep  Henry's  mind  from  the  "Fool- 
King"  Louis  of  France,  whom  he  (Henry)  is  planning 
to  match  me  with  for  a  few  miserly  pounds  of  gold. 
I  swear  by  my  country  and  my  father  I  will  never 
marry  that  "old  man,"  so  if  Henry  becomes  too 
forcible,  I  must  get  the  help  of  Wolsey  who  stands 
in  high  favor. 

The  scandal  of  it !  Henry  has  denounced  the  Pope 
and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  church.  Poor 
Catherine  has  sworn  she  is,  and  has  always  been, 
Henry's  faithful  wife.  But  he  scorns  her  and  is  to 
be  quietly  divorced  from  her  and  as  quietly  married 
to  Anne.  O,  me !  He  has  also  begun  preparations 
with  France,  but  I  do  not  fear,  for  they  will  never  be 
accomplished. 

I  am  writing  this  in  France.  Even  with  all  my 
courage,   "that  villain"  married  me  to  Louis. 

But  Henry  VIII  of  England  is  dead  and  duly 
buried,  also  poor  Wolsey  who  died  in  disgrace  and  de- 
spair having  served  his  King  too  well  instead  of  his 
maker.  Louis,  of  France  is  also  upon  his  last  bed 
and  Francis  II  is  already  planning  to  marry  me,  but 
I'll  not  be  kept  in  misery  any  longer  than  to  see 
Louis  buried  in  French  soil. 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     123 


Windsor 
Castle 
Eng.  In  the 
Year  1554. 


Surrey 
England  In 
the  Year  1558. 


Windsor 
Castle  in  the 
Year  1587. 


Edward  VI,  Henry's  son,  reigns  in  England,  and  has 
made  the  country  protestant.  Nothing  is  talked  of  but 
burning  stakes,  scaffolds  and  religion.  Thousands  of 
CathoKcs  are  being  put  to  death  every  day  and 
everybody's  life  is  in  danger  but  for  all  this,  let 
me  see  my  beloved   "Windsor"   once  again. 

Home  once  again,  and  how  good  that  looks  to  one 
who  has  longed  by  night  and  day  for  it.  Many  things 
have  happened  since  my  last  writing.  I  am  a  happy 
dowager  for  the  King  of  France  has  passed  away  and 
with  him  Edward  of  England.  This  year  has  marked  a 
great  discovery.  All  honor  goes  to  Spain,  as  one 
"Columbus"  has  discovered  a  new  land  westward. 
England  under  Edward  VI  has  sent  one,  John  Cabot 
and  his  son,  to  affirm  these  tales.  He  is  expected  to 
report  tomorrow  of  his  discoveries. 

Upon  the  death  of  Edward,  his  sister,  Mary,  be- 
came Queen  and  with  her  came  back  the  old  religion. 
The  persecution  of  the  Protestants  has  begun  in  the 
terrible  manner  like  to  Edward's  in  persecuting  the 
Catholics. 

Now  again  we  have  a  new  ruler.  Mary,  the  bloody, 
as  her  subjects  have  named  her,  has  passed  away,  died 
of  a  broken  heart.  And  Elizabeth,  my  niece,  daughter 
of  Henry  VIII  and  Anne  Boleyn,  has  been  crowned 
Queen.  Ehzabeth  is  twenty-five  years  of  age  and 
swears  she  will  never  marry.  As  Mary  undid  the 
religious  works  of  Henry  and  Edward  so  has  Elizabeth 
undone  the  work  of  Mary.  So  that  again  CathoHcs 
are  being  put  to  death  and  suffering  in  the  "Tower." 

Today  the  subjects  of  England  are  in  a  great  tumult. 
For  hundreds  are  setting  sail  for  Holland  exiling 
themselves  on  account  of  their  religion.  They  are 
known  as  Puritans  and  Separatists,  people  who  adopt 
Protestantism  as  a  whole  but  not  each  separate 
part.  May  they  be  satisfied  and  contented  in  their 
adopted  homes. 

The  hfe  of  "Mary,  Queen  of  the  Scots"  was  ended 
today.  Elizabeth   has   succeeded   in  this,   as   in  other 


124  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

things.    And  so  the  poor  Scottish  Queen  will  trouble 
her  no  more.    May  Elizabeth  not  be  judged  as  she 
has  judged. 
England  The  death  of  Mary  has  led  to  the  closing  of  Spanish 

July  18,1588.     friendship.    Tomorrow  England's   fleet  of   eighty  ves- 
sels meets  the  awful  Spanish  Armada  in  British  waters. 
May  God  grant  that  England  comes  out  victorious. 
England  Eight   nights   ago   the   Armada   was   discovered   by 

J  y  27, 1588.  ^j^g  watchman  on  the  English  cliffs.  And  as  it  swept 
up  the  Channel  seven  miles  in  width  from  tip  to 
tip  of  horn.  The  British  ships  only  eighty  in  number 
advanced  to  meet  it.  And  for  seven  long  days  and 
nights  England  has  fought  Hke  mad.  The  seventh 
night  five  ships  were  sent  amongst  the  Spanish  boats 
and  they  were  put  to  flight.  England  is  mistress  of 
the  seas.    God  save  the  Queen ! 

The  foregoing  is  an  exact  copy  of  what  a  third-year  high- 
school  girl  wrote  in  connection  with  her  work  in  English 
history.  Of  course  the  chronology  is  not  quite  straight 
throughout,  but  why  object  to  such  a  minor  defect  in  the 
first  copy?  How  could  a  teacher  hit  upon  a  better  way  of 
determining  whether  a  student  was  or  was  not  keeping  his 
chronology  straight?  The  girl  certainly  got  into  the  spirit 
of  the  history  of  the  times  and  succeeded  in  saying  what  she 
had  in  mind  in  correct,  concrete,  and  picturesque  English. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  a  short  theme  written  by  a 
second-year  high-school  girl  in  connection  with  her  work  in 
Roman  history. 

FOOD  AND  UTENSILS— ROMAN 

Private  Life  of  The  Romans  ate  an  awful  lot  of  fruit  because  it 
grew  so  plentiful  in  Rome.  The  reason  it  grew  so 
plentiful  there  is  because  Rome  is  situated  in  a  warm 
climate  where  there  is  plenty  of  rain  and  therefore 
there  is  good  soil.  They  also  had  garden  produce 
such  as  asparagus,  beans,  beets,  cabbages  and  etc. 
The  potato  and  tomato  most  highly  prized  by  us  was 


the  Romans 
Johnston 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     125 

unknown  to  the  Romans.  For  meat  the  Romans  ate 
beef,  pork  and  goatflesh  and  also  other  domestic  fowls 
and  fish.  Oysters  were  then  just  as  common  as  they 
are  today.  Wheat  was  the  staple  grain  grown  for 
food.  In  the  earliest  times  the  grain  was  not  ground 
but  merely  pounded  in  a  mortar.  The  meal  was  then 
mixed  with  water  and  made  into  a  sort  of  porridge, 
something  like  oatmeal.  The  grinding  in  the  later 
times  was  done  in  a  mill  worked  by  a  horse.  After  the 
grain  was  ground  into  flour,  it  was  made  into  bread 
and  sold  at  the  bakeries.  Next  in  importance  of  the 
wheat  came  the  olive.  These  were  eaten  when  ripe 
V  and  were  preserved  in  various  ways.  They  also  made 
oil  from  them.  There  were  plenty  of  grapes  in  Rome 
and  they  were  used  mostly  for  making  wine.  This  wine 
was  made  and  stored  away  sometimes  for  centuries. 
The  Romans  ate  three  times  a  day  as  we  do  now.  The 
Romans  did  not  have  near  so  many  utensils  as  we 
have.  They  had  large  mixing  bowls  and  drinking  cups. 
Their  spoons  were  very  queer.  They  had  long  handles 
on  them.  They  did  not  have  any  forks,  but  they  had 
something  with  two  prongs  on  it  they  used  sometimes 
to  pick  up  things  with.^ 

This  theme  was  profusely  illustrated,  making  the  work  on  the 
whole  very  concrete.  The  history  teacher  can  find  little  or  no 
fault  with  history  in  it.  Not  so  much,  however,  can  be  said  for 
the  English.  Here  is  a  splendid  example  of  good  history  and 
poor  English.  In  such  a  case  it  would  surely  be  asking  too 
much  of  the  history  teacher  to  iron  out  all  the  English  defects. 
If  such  a  demand  were  made,  it  would  mean  abandonment  of 
the  history  in  favor  of  English,  which  does  not  seem  fair  when 
it  is  more  likely  that  this  girl  would  get  in  the  course  of  her 
high-school  education  twice  as  much  exposure  to  English  as 
to  history. 

^  Written  by  a  member  of  one  of  the  high  schools  in  New  York  City. 
A  student  in  the  same  school  also  wrote  the  preceding  example. 


126  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

The  following  is  another  example  of  a  short  historical 
theme.  In  it  one  finds  rather  bad  history  and  good  English. 
On  a  careful  grading  this  theme  would  probably  be  graded 
lower  on  history  than  the  foregoing  one,  even  though  there  is 
no  comparison  between  the  two  in  the  matter  of  English. 

THE  CROWNING  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

All  was  silent.  The  great  bell  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter  in 
Rome,  on  Christmas  day  in  800  a.d.,  tolled  the  hour  of  worship, 
and  in  pairs,  solitary,  and  in  parties,  the  people  swarmed  into  the 
great  cathedral.  One  by  one  in  their  bright  colored  garments  and 
with  picturesque  faces  they  asked  blessing  of  the  Pope,  who  sat 
at  the  front  of  the  church  on  a  huge,  beautiful  velvet  chair,  mounted 
on  a  tall  platform.  To  each  he  bowed  and  they,  in  their  turns, 
took  places  and  prayed. 

Suddenly  a  loud,  high  call  sounded  outside,  and  a  large  man 
with  splendid  physique  and  handsome  face,  with  a  long  flowing 
beard  of  copper  color,  entered  the  church  and  knelt.  He  was 
simply  dressed  in  bronze  colored  gown,  fashioned  with  designs  of 
dragons  fighting,  and  wore  on  his  head  a  soft  white  cap  from 
which  a  long  streamer  extended  down  his  back  nearly  to  the 
floor.  As  he  knelt  there  on  the  soft  red  cushion,  with  the  sun, 
which  streamed  through  the  magnificent  stained  glass  window, 
shining  on  his  burnished  copper  hair,  making  it  seem  like  an 
immense  crown  of  gold,  and  with  the  soft  lights  from  the  various 
colored  torches  and  candles  of  the  church  bringing  out  the  simple- 
ness  yet  striking  appearance  of  his  gown,  one  knew  that  he  was  a 
nobleman,  strong  and  brave.  He  knelt  for  several  minutes  and 
then,  looking  neither  to  left  nor  right,  proceeded  down  the  aisle, 
two  men  following  him  carrying  his  sword  and  rich  velvet  robe. 

As  he  came  to  the  Pope,  he  raised  his  eyes  to  Heaven  and 
crossed  himself.  Then  falling  on  his  knees  and  kissing  the  Pope's 
gorgeous  robe  he  asked  for  blessing.  At  once  the  Pope  recognized 
him.  It  was  Charlemagne,  the  Great  Emperor  of  the  world.  As 
he  bent  his  head  in  prayer,  the  Pope  drew  forth  a  magnifi- 
cently made  crown  of  gold,  set  with  diamonds  and  gold  carving 
and   studded   with   many   other   precious   stones.     Placing   it   on 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     127 

Charlemagne's  head,  he  stood  up,  and,  in  a  loud  clear  voice,  cried 
"Long  live  Charles  Augustus,  Emperor  of  the  Romans." 

The  people  in  the  church  echoed  and  re-echoed  the  words  and 
hundreds  of  voices  were  heard  outside  of  the  church  singing 
and  shouting.  So  Charlemagne  was  crowned  on  Christmas  day,  and 
the  Roman  empire  of  the  West,  which  had  fallen  more  than  three 
hundred  years  before,  was  now  restored.^ 

The  two  following  examples,  an  editorial  and  some  letters, 
were  written  by  members  of  a  senior  class  in  American  his- 
tory .^  They  show  that  it  is  possible  to  get  a  combination  of 
correct  history  and  satisfactory  English. 

1835  Boston,  Massachusetts 

AN  ABOLITIONIST  EDITORIAL  BY  WILLIAM  LLOYD 
GARRISON 

Just  fifty-nine  years  ago  our  fathers  announced  to  the  world 
their  Declaration  of  Independence,  based  on  the  self-evident  truths 
of  human  equality  and  rights.  This  document  appealed  to  arms 
for  its  defense,  and  by  arms  it  was  admirably  defended.  Today 
a  condition  exists  which  surpasses  by  far  any  which  our  fathers 
resisted.  Their  grievances  were  trifles  compared  with  the  wrongs 
and  sufferings  of  negro  slaves.  Almost  three  score  years  ago  men 
fought  and  died  for  Liberty.  Today  their  own  sons  grind  human 
flesh  beneath  their  heels  for  money.  A  new  enterprise,  the  aboHtion 
of  slavery,  is  one  without  which  that  of  our  fathers  is  incomplete. 

Our  nation  is  bound  to  repent  at  once,  to  let  the  oppressed  go 
free,  to  admit  them  to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  others  for 
many  reasons. 

If  there  are  any  inalienable  rights,  liberty  is  undoubtedly  one  of 
them.  To  hold  that  men  can  be  excluded  from  the  beneficent  prin- 
ciples of  free  government  because  they  are  inferior  to  other  men  is 
a  doctrine  which  strikes  at  the  basis  of  free  government  in  America. 
No  man  has  the  right  to  enslave  his  brother,  no  matter  what  his 
color  may  be,  and  no  length,  of  bondage  can  invahdate  man's  claims 
to  himself.     Slavery  outrages  the  fundamental  law  of  civilization. 

1  Cole,  "Visualizing  History,"  Education,  XXXIV,  503  f. 

2  Taught  by  H.  C.  Hill,  The  University  of  Chicago  High  School. 


12,8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

It  also  makes  nought  the  teachings  of  religion.  Who  is  it  that 
is  authorized  by  the  Almighty  God  to  shut  the  negro  from  the 
Golden  Rule,  from  the  building  up  of  his  own  character  through 
the  grace  of  God  ?  If  the  negro  is  a  hopeless  pagan,  incapable  of 
civilization  and  of  virtue,  his  presence  is  an  unspeakable  curse  to 
the  community.  If  he  is  a  man  who  could  respond  to  the  divine 
truths,  who  made  the  white  man  his  keeper? 

Africa  might  be  held  responsible  for  the  low  morals  of  the 
slave,  but  it  cannot  be  contradicted  that  slavery  denies  both 
Christianity  and  civilization  when  it  breaks  up  families.  How 
many  mothers  have  seen  their  babies  torn  from  their  arms 
and  sold  to  hard-eyed  masters !  And  husbands  and  wives  have 
no  certainty  that  their  marriage  vows  may  not  at  any  time  be 
severed  by  the  auction  block.  Sold  apart,  they  are  considered 
divorced,  and  so  may  marry  again.  Thus  the  marriage  relation 
among  negroes  is  very  degraded,  having  a  demorahzing  effect  on  a 
large  part  of  our  country.  To  say  that  negroes  ''are  themselves 
both  perverse  and  comparatively  indifferent  about  this  matter, — 
the  negroes  forming  those  connections  knowing  the  chances  of  their 
premature  dissolution"  is  to  admit  the  damaging  charge  that  slave 
life  paralyzes  the  natural  family  instincts  even  of  the  savage. 

Another  misfortune  has  been  wrought  by  leaving  the  work  to 
be  done  by  the  Africans.  It  has  made  labor  disreputable  all  over 
the  South.  There  is  a  large  class  of  white  people  called  "poor 
whites,"  not  rich  enough  to  live  decently  without  work,  yet  dis- 
daining work  because  it  places  them  on  a  level  with  negroes. 
They  live  a  wretched,  thriftless,  hopeless  existence.  The  rich 
whites,  imperious  masters,  look  down  on  them ;  the  negroes  with 
wealthy  owners  despise  them ;  they  are  ignorant  to  a  degree  almost 
incredible  in  a  "free"  country  like  ours;  and  they  are  a  class 
which  never  could  exist  in  a  community  where  honest  labor  is 
respected  as  it  ought  to  be. 

The  negro  himself  is  treated  horribly  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten. 
His  lot  is  especially  hard  on  large  plantations,  where  hired  over- 
seers, paid  according  to  the  number  of  bales  of  cotton  they  can 
produce,  beat  the  blacks  unmercifully,  working  under  the  theory 
that  the  negro  will  work  under  the  lash  or  for  fear  of  it.  The 
backs  of  men  and  women  and  little  children,  ridged  and  scarred 
with  the  lash,  illustrate  the  brutality  of  these  "drivers."    Negroes 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     129 

have  been  beaten  to  death  so  often  that  it  has  been  necessary  to 
make  a  law  forbidding  killing  them  at  the  whipping  post.  Imagine 
a  "civilization"  that  requires  such  measures!  And  yet  even  this 
restraint  is  gotten  around  by  making  owners  not  re.sponsible  if 
their  slaves  die  from  "moderate  correction  T* 

The  main  argument  in  favor  of  slavery  is  that  slaves  do  not  want 
freedom.  This  is  not  true  because  all  along  the  line  dividing  slave 
from  free  states,  year  after  year  the  number  of  fugitives  has  been 
increasing.  Under  all  apparent  content  is  a  terrible  discontent 
which,  in  a  race  of  more  bloodthirsty  nature  than  these  peaceable 
Africans,  would  be  deadly  in  its  outbreak.  And  there  is  already 
too  much  blood  of  the  white  race  in  the  faces  of  these  bond-servants 
to  make  good  chattels  of  them. 

One  example  of  how  a  slave  resisted  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law, 
(forcing  any  citizen  to  seize  and  return  a  fugitive)  may  be  cited 
to  show  the  new  spirit  of  the  negroes.  Margaret  Garner,  a 
mulatto  slave  girl,  had  two  children,  both  very  white  and  fair. 
For  the  obvious  reasons  I  have  named,  Margaret  did  not  want  to 
stay  in  slavery,  and  so  she  ran  away  with  her  children.  They  hid  in 
the  house  of  a  free  negro,  but  were  soon  tracked  to  their  hiding 
place  by  Margaret's  master  and  a  force  of  men  he  had  brought  with 
him.  The  door  was  barred,  but  the  officers  battered  it  down  and 
got  in.  When  they  entered,  there  stood  Margaret  Garner  between 
the  bodies  of  her  two  children,  holding  a  knife  in  her  hand.  She 
had  cut  their  throats  with  her  own  hand,  and  said  she  would 
rather  have  them  dead  than  taken  back  to  slavery.  Margaret 
loved  her  babies,  and  wept  when  she  told  how  pretty  they  were. 
But  she  never  was  sorry  she  had  killed  them,  for  she  knew  what 
she  had  saved  them  from. 

The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  must  be  subjected  to  a  higher  law, 
the  Law  of  God,  giving  human  beings  the  right  to  life  and  Hberty. 
No  longer  shall  one  man,  made  a  brute  by  the  power  given  him, 
subject  hundreds  of  his  brothers  to  a  serfdom  that  outrages  all 
the  God-given  rights  of  human  liberty  that  our  fathers  fought  to 
defend.  Free  these  down-trodden  fellow-men !  Carry  on  the  work 
of  our  fathers  who  died  for  Hberty ! 


130  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

DOWN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  ON  A  FLAT  BOAT 

From  the  Letters  of  James  Raldon 

June  3,  1788 
My  dear  Parents : 

We  are  now  preparing  for  our  Mississippi  trip,  and  have  just 
finished  building  our  boat.  I  am  enclosing  you  a  picture  of  the 
crude  affair  which  nevertheless  fits  our  purpose  nicely.  My  dear 
Mother,  how  you  would  laugh  were  you  to  see  your  son  who  in 
the  east  had  the  habit  of  dressing  quite  handsomely,  clad  in  a 
flannel  shirt  of  red,  a  blue  jerkin,  fitted  loosely  and  brown 
trousers  of  the  coarsest  texture.  Indeed  this  is  the  fashion  in 
which  we  dress.  My  cap  is  of  untanned  skin  and  instead  of  boots 
I,  like  all  my  companions,  wear  moccasins.  My  hunting  knife  and 
tobacco  pouch  hang  from  a  leather  belt  which  I  wear  around  my 
waist,  and  quite  naturally  a  revolver  is  always  in  my  pocket. 

Our  boat  is  rather  sturdy  and  well  accomodates  our  party  and 
materials.  I  am  quite  curious  to  begin  the  journey  as  the  men  who 
have  made  previous  trips  are  very  enthusiastic. 

I  will  close  now  and  I  send  to  you,  my  dear  parents,  much  love 
from 

Your  obedient  son, 

James  Raldon 

June  6,  1788 
Dearest  Mother : 

I  received  your  last  letter  just  before  we  left  on  our  trip.  The 
weather  has  been  delightful.  As  yet  we  have  stopped  no  place. 
Our  day  is  spent  quite  pleasantly,  however,  as  "Prima  Donna 
George,"  as  the  honorable  Mr.  Forest  is  nicknamed,  has  enter- 
tained us  quite  nobly  with  his  many  ditties,  and  old  Bob  Krundle 
is  handy  at  the  "fiddle."  We  sit  on  the  deck  and  make  merry. 
Our  meals  are  fair;  good  and  plenty  for  ordinary  boatmen.  The 
men  say  I  don't  act  a  particle  like  an  easterner  and  indeed  they 
are  greatly  interested  in  my  college  life  and  society  in  Philadelphia. 
Tom  Johnson  deems  me  quite  wonderful  because  I  have  shaken 
hands  with  General  Washington,  and  actually  dined  with  Sam 
Adams.     But  my  staunchest  and  most  intimate  friend  is  Charles 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     131 

Gately,  a  fellow  nearly  forty,  who  claims  I  have  "grit"  for  a  boy 
of  twenty,  to  come  here  when  I  don't  have  to. 

Well,  dear  Mother,  we  are  going  to  land  in  a  few  minutes  and 
so  I  shall  have  to  terminate  my  letter.  I  will  write  you  again 
as  soon  as  possible.  Give  my  love  to  Father  and  take  much  for 
yourself  from, 

Your  respectful  son, 

James  Raldon 


June  29,  1788 
My  dear  Parents : 

I  am  so  sorry  that  I  am  unable  to  receive  letters  from  you  but 
as  we  are  always  moving  it  is  impossible.  Since  I  last  saw  you  I 
have  had  many  interesting  experiences.  At  Cahokia  we  had  a  fine 
sale,  but  fe\y  other  places  have  greatly  desired  our  wares.  After 
leaving  Cahokia,  however,  we  met  another  boat  of  our  type  pinned 
on  a  planter.  Stopping  we  asked  if  we  could  be  of  assistance  and 
indeed  they  were  delighted  to  accept  our  aid  as  they  had  been  in 
distress  for  many  hours.  We  landed  and  then  helped  to  set  the 
boat  loose.  After  toiling  for  probably  three  hours  we  succeeded 
in  our  task  and  indeed  our  friends  were  appreciative. 

That  was  our  first  experience  of  the  kind  but  the  other  men 
said  that  such  occurrences  were  common  and  that  we  would 
probably  encounter  one  before  our  trip  was  ended.  One  night 
sometime  later,  we  stopped,  landed,  and  camped  in  the  forest. 
We  had  heard  that  the  district  was  inhabited  by  about  sixty-five 
thousand  Indians,  and  so  one  man  kept  watch  with  a  rifle,  and 
was  ordered  to  awaken  the  entire  camp  at  any  suspicion  of 
Indians.  The  watch  was  changed  at  twelve  o'clock  in  the  night, 
the  first  part  of  the  evening  passing  peacefully.  But  about  two 
o'clock  in  the  morning  we  were  awakened.  "Strange  sounds  in 
the  trees"  we  were  warned.  All  armed,  we  waited  silently.  Again 
the  pecuHar  noise  was  audible.  Next  we  distinguished  the  sound 
of  stealthy  footsteps ;  outwardly  I  was  calm,  but  every  nerve  was 
tense  and  although  I  did  not  actually  fear  the  Indians  I  was 
agitated  and  nervous.  The  great  question,  which  of  course  we 
were  unable  to  answer,  was  how  many  Indians  were  there. 
A  moment  or  two  of  silence  elapsed.    Then  with  a  rush  our  camp 


132  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

was  attacked  by  panthers.  Later  we  learned  they  were  not  really 
panthers  but  what  are  known  and  termed  as  ''wild-cats."  With 
little  difficulty  and  in  an  exceedingly  short  time  the  beasts  were 
slain,  and  therefore  our  experiences  so  far  with  Indians  have  been 
quite  mild. 

When  I  reach  New  Orleans  I  will  write  how  you  will  be  able  to 
write  or  meet  me  if  you  wish.  Until  then  may  providence  guard 
you. 

Much  love  from  your  ever  obedient  and  respectful  son, 

James  Raldon 


AN  IMAGINARY  LETTER  FROM  HENRY  CLAY  TO 
JOHN  C.  CALHOUN 

Ghent,  the  Netherlands 
February  i,  1815 
John  C.  Calhoun,  M.C. 

Washington,  D.C.,  U.S.A. 
Dear  Sir  : 

By  the  time  this  epistle  reaches  you  the  treaty,  which  our  com- 
mission, after  much  delay,  succeeded  in  wresting  from  the  British 
commissioners,  will  perhaps  have  been  ratified  or  rejected  by  the 
Senate,    I  trust  the  former  will  be  the  case. 

Although  the  treaty  does  not  provide  for  the  abolition  of  these 
outrages  by  which  we  were  driven  to  war,  yet  the  respect  for  our 
nation,  which  the  memory  of  our  victorious  commands  will  enhance 
will  doubtless  prevent  their  repetition.  The  Orders  in  Council  have 
been  repealed  and  I  am  confident  that  with  Napoleon's  downfall, 
which  must  come  shortly,  interference  with  our  trade  and  impress- 
ment of  our  seamen  will  cease. 

As  desirable  as  was  war  and  honor  three  years  ago,  much  more  to 
be  desired  today  is  peace,  if  it  can  be  obtained  without  dishonor. 
Recent  reports  from  the  various  states,  telling  of  the  distress  due 
to  our  blockaded  ports  and  interrupted  commerce,  have  so  alarmed 
the  commission  that  even  I,  whom  Randolph  called  a  "war  hawk," 
am  willing  to  accept  a  treaty  which  guarantees  peace  alone.  I 
sincerely  hope  that  you  have  not  or  will  not  use  your  influence  to 
defeat  its  ratification  or  to  embarrass  its  drafters. 


WRITTEN  WORX  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     133 

Mr.  Adams  has  returned  to  Russia  to  resume  his  post.  The 
remainder  of  the  commission,  Messrs.  Bayard,  Gallatin,  Russell, 
and  myself  are  awaiting  word  of  the  Senate's  action  before  return- 
ing home. 

Your  fellow-countryman, 

H.  Clayi 

The  foregoing  are  enough  examples  to  give  the  history- 
teacher  a  concrete  notion  of  a  number  of  types  of  written 
work.  There  is  a  kind,  however,  which  it  will  not  be  feasible 
to  illustrate  with  an  example  because  of  its  varied  nature. 
This  is  blackboard  work  in  a  multitude  of  forms.  The  reader 
will  recall  that  Miss  Thorndyke  in  her  assignment  always  made 
provision  for  blackboard  work  to  which  some  time  in  most 
class  periods  was  devoted.  Attention  has  also  been  called  to 
the  use  of  the  blackboard  in  teaching  pupils  to  make  outlines. 
Another  kind  of  blackboard  work  is  the  short-paragraph  reci- 
tation written  on  the  board,  without  the  use  of  notes,  on  topics 
announced  by  the  teacher  which  may  or  may  not  have  been 
previously  assigned.  This  type  of  work  gives  more  pupils  an 
opportunity  to  recite  as  well  as  affords  valuable  training  in 
written  expression.  Furthermore,  when  the  board  work  is 
criticized  by  the  class,  the  principle  of  unity  is  maintained 
just  as  it  is  in  oral  reciting. 

The  practical  thing  for  a  teacher  to  do  in  preparing  for 
this  sort  of  work  is  to  make  a  definite  list  of  diagrams  and 
similar  material  suitable  for  blackboard  reproduction  in  each 
field  of  history  he  teaches.  References  where  these  diagrams 
can  be  found  should  accompany  this  list.  For  example,  if 
the  teacher  desired  to  have  the  plan  of  a  Greek  home  repro- 
duced on  the  blackboard,  material  for  it  can  be  found  in 
Breasted's  Ancient  Times,  p.  456,  and  in  West's  Ancient  World, 
p.  231.  There  has  been  published  recently  a  rather  extensive 
list  of  diagrams  in  each  field  of  high-school  history  suitable 

1  Williams,  "  Standards  for  Judging  Instruction  in  History,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VI,  239. 


134  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

for  blackboard  reproduction.  It  is  too  long  to  reproduce  here. 
Those  interested  in  this  matter  will  find  the  list  with  exact 
references  in  the  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VIII,  253  ff. 

The  Problem  of  English 

As  soon  as  the  history  teacher  decides  that  the  formal 
written  work  shall  have  an  important  place  in  the  general 
scheme  of  making  up  final  grades,  the  problem  of  English 
forces  itself  to  the  front.  The  two  questions  that  he  must 
answer  at  the  outset  are :  Must  the  history  teacher  be  respon- 
sible for  the  English  in  the  written  work  in  history  ?  and  Shall 
the  pupil  who  does  good  formal  written  work  from  the  stand- 
point of  history  but  poor  from  the  standpoint  of  English  receive 
a  low  grade  in  history  ?  If  the  history  teacher  answers  each  of 
these  two  questions  in  the  negative,  some  arrangement  would 
need  to  be  made  with  the  English  department  so  that  he  would 
grade  the  history  in  a  given  paper  and  the  English  teacher  the 
English.  If  such  an  adjustment  could  be  made,  as  the  teacher 
of  history  he  would  emphasize  content  rather  than  form.  For 
him,  the  thing  said  would  be  of  chief  concern  and  not  the  way 
it  was  said.  It  would  be  possible  for  a  pupil  under  such  a 
scheme  to  make  a  relatively  high  grade  in  history  even  though 
his  grade  in  English  were  low.  He  might  pass  in  his  history 
but  fail  in  his  English. 

Another  solution  of  this  same  problem  has  been  suggested.^ 
This,  however,  involves  a  complete  reorganization  of  the  high- 
school  English  course,  as  follows :  Instead  of  having  the  pupil 
spend  four  years  in  classes  in  English,  as  he  now  does,  reduce 
this  time  to  about  two  years,  giving  him  a  course  in  form, 
much  practice  in  paragraph  and  sentence  structure,  some  his- 
tory of  literature,  and  a  few  literary  masterpieces  to  develop 
appreciation.  The  time  saved  by  adopting  this  scheme  would 
be  given  to  the  teaching  of  history,  sciences,  commercial  and 
industrial  subjects.    The  teachers  of  these  branches  would  in 

1  Judd,  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects^  p.  210. 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     135 

reality  become  English  teachers,  simply  applying  what  had 
been  taught  in  the  English  department.  Such  an  economy 
would  be  in  harmony  with  the  idea  that  the  pupil  and  not  the 
subject  taught  is  the  center  of  gravity  in  all  courses  in  the 
high  school. 

While  history  teachers  are  waiting  for  the  actual  realization 
of  the  reforms  required  to  inaugurate  the  plan  outlined  above, 
they  will  have  either  to  overlook  the  mistakes  in  English 
made  by  the  pupils  in  writing  history  papers,  or,  with  the 
consent  of  the  principal,  and  the  cooperation  of  the  English 
department,  form  a  combination  course  made  up  of  history 
and  English.  Such  a  course  if  inaugurated  could  be  taught 
by  one  or  two  teachers.  The  two- teacher  plan  as  worked  out 
in  the  Mary  C.  Wheeler  School,  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  is 
briefly  described  as  follows  by  one  of  the  originators: 

The  time  set  apart  for  Ancient  History  and  English  in  a  given 
year  has  been  reduced  from  seven  to  five  periods  a  week ;  two  of 
these  five  recitations  are  conducted  by  the  teacher  of  English, 
three  by  the  teacher  of  history ;  all  of  the  reading  done  in  con- 
nection with  the  English  work  is  made  tributary  to  the  course  in 
history;  the  use  of  correct  English  in  speech  and  writing  is  as 
much  a  requirement  for  the  history  class  as  is  a  knowledge  of 
certain  historical  facts.  In  both  classes  a  definite  effort  is  made 
to  develop  the  ability  to  read  rapidly,  discriminatingly,  and  thought- 
fully. The  year's  work  as  a  whole  must  satisfy  the  demands  of 
both  departments  for  the  required  work  of  the  given  year.  .  .  . 

In  all  the  work  in  history  a  constant  effort  is  made  to  put  in 
practice  the  principles  of  English  in  which  the  pupil  has  been 
trained,  by  insisting  that  oral  and  written  recitations  be  made  in 
good  form,  that  complete  sentences  be  used,  and  that  ideas  be 
accurately  expressed.  The  pupils  are  encouraged  to  make  a 
conscious  effort  to  enlarge  their  vocabularies  by  studying  the  mean- 
ing and  derivation  of  new  words  and  by  making  a  point  of  using 
them.  The  study  of  paragraph  structure,  begun  in  the  previous 
year,  is  carried  on  both  in  reading  and  in  writing.  Outlines  are 
made,  sometimes  in  class,  sometimes  as  outside  work.     Written 


136  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

work  is  corrected  by  the  English  teacher  or  by  the  history  teacher, 
or  by  both.  In  any  case,  it  is  corrected  for  both  English  form 
and  historical  accuracy.^ 

On  the  face  of  it  this  scheme  seems  worth  trying  out.  In 
all  probability  the  pupils  will  receive  as  much  real  education 
in  one  year  through  such  a  combination  as  in  two  years  under 
the  present  segregated  plan.  There  are,  however,  connected 
with  the  project  certain  administrative  obstacles,  such  as 
finding  something  for  the  history  teacher  to  do  while  the 
English  teacher  is  teaching  the  class,  and  vice  versa.  One  way 
to  overcome  such  an  obstacle  is  to  make  one  teacher  respon- 
sible '  for  all  the  instruction  whether  in  history  or  English. 
This  plan  has  been  successfully  tried  out  in  the  J.  Sterling 
Morton  High  School,  Cicero,  Illinois.  Third-year  English 
is  merged  with  American  history,  and  a  combined  course  of 
composition,  English  literature,  and  English  history  is  given 
in  the  fourth  year.  One  teacher  is  responsible  for  all  the  work 
in  each  of  these  courses.  Some  idea  of  what  is  done  in  the 
course  in  the  third  year  may  be  gained  from  a  general  account 
of  a  week's  work. 

A  week's  work  in  this  course  [third-year  EngHsh-American  his- 
tory] is  as  follows  :  assignments  in  the  history  text ;  collateral  reading 
in  secondary  books  of  history  of  a  minimum  of  twenty-five  pages ; 
literature  assignments  which  use  the  history  as  a  background, 
equivalent  to  about  fifty  pages ;  and  written  work,  which  consists 
of  writing  up  oral  reports  given  in  the  daily  class  work.  Each 
pupil  reports  orally  to  the  class  on  subjects  not  treated  in  the  text- 
book. Some  forty  or  fifty  of  these  reports  are  given  each  month 
by  the  class,  and  this  makes  a  minimum  demand  on  the  pupil  of 
two  reports  a  month.  Two  reports  a  day  on  the  average  are  given 
in  class.  The  reports  are  always  sure  to  be  hstened  to  because  of 
the  new  material  they  contain ;  and,  furthermore,  interest  is  almost 
coerced  because  each  pupil  is  required  to  take  notes  on  these  re- 
ports and  expand  the  notes  into  paragraphs  or  outlines  for  the 

^  Hobson,  "  Co-operation  between  Ancient  History  and  English,"  School 
Review,  XXV,  481,  483. 


WRITTEN  WORK  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY     137 

notebook.  The  teacher  scans  the  notebook  with  the  same  care 
which  he  gives  the  other  written  work  of  the  department.  Besides 
the  writing  up  of  the  notes  from  the  pupil  reports  in  class,  three 
700-1000-word  themes  on  collateral  subjects  are  required  each 
semester.^ 

The  two  plans  described  above,  assuring  as  they  do  the 
proper  attention  to  both  English  and  to  history  in  all  written 
work  done  in  connection  with  history  instruction,  are  worthy 
of  imitation  and  adoption  by  other  schools.  Should  neither  of 
them  be  feasible,  there  is  still  another  plan  which  the  history 
teacher  might  use  requiring  only  the  cooperation  of  the 
English  teacher  for  its  success.  In  brief  it  is  this :  In  English 
classes  specializing  on  short  themes,  let  the  history  teacher 
supply  a  certain  proportion  of  the  subjects;  also  in  a  class 
specializing  in  debating,  let  the  history  teacher  furnish  some 
of  the  subjects  for  the  debates.  Such  cooperation  would  assure 
the  English  teacher  a  supply  of  real  and  vital  subjects  for  her 
pupils  on  which  to  write  and  to  debate.  It  would  also  reen- 
force  the  history  work  and  make  the  pupils  feel  that  some 
practical  use  of  their  historical  knowledge  could  be  made. 
The  following  are  some  topics  in  Greek  history  which  might 
be  used  for  short  themes:  "A  Day  in  a  Spartan  School," 
^^A  Day  as  an  Athenian  Boy,"  "A  Day  as  an  Athenian 
Matron,"  "My  March  with  Alexander  the  Great,"  "When 
I  Won  the  Race  at  Olympia,"  and  "What  I  Saw  at  Delphi." ^ 
Under  such  a  plan  as  this,  the  history  teacher  would  also 
need  to  carry  on  other  types  of  written  work  independently 
of  the  English  department,  since  theme-writing  is  but  one  of 
the  many  types  of  written  work  to  be  done  in  connection 
with  history  instruction.  r' 

^  Church,  "An  Experiment  in  Third- Year  English,"  School  Review^ 
XXV,  492. 

2  Monro,  "  Theme  Subjects  from  Greek  History,"  History  Teacher'' s 
Magazine^  V,  252. 


138  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

ADDITIONAL   READING   MATTER 

Church,  H.  V.  "An  Experiment  in  Third- Year  English,"  School  Review, 
XXV  (i9i7),488ff. 

Cole,  Marion  C.  "Visualizing  History,"  Education,  XXXIV  (1914), 
Soiff. 

HoBSON,  Elsie  G.  "  Co-operation  between  Ancient  History  and  English," 
School  Review,  XXV   (1917),  480 ff. 

Monro,  Kate  M.  "Theme  Subjects  from  Greek  History,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  V  (1914),  252  f. 

Williams,  O.  H,  "Standards  for  judging  Instruction  in  History,"  His- 
tory Teacher's  Magazine,  VI  (1915),  235  ff. 

WuESTHOFF,  W.  W.  "Blackboard  Work  in  History  Teaching,"  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VIII  (1917),  253  ff. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  TERM  PAPER  AND  THE  PERMANENT 
NOTEBOOK 

Closely  related  to  the  written  work  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  are  the  term  paper  and  the  permanent  note- 
book, the  former  being  the  culminating  product  of  all  written 
work  and  the  latter  a  sort  of  repository  for  all  work  of  a 
permanent  nature.  Because  of  its  closer  relation  to  the  subject 
matter  in  Chapter  VI,  the  term  paper  will  be  considered  first. 

The  Term  Paper 

As  discussed  in  this  chapter  the  term  paper  is  quite  an 
elaborate  piece  of  work  done  according  to  scientific  procedure 
in  the  application  of  the  historical  method.  Since  it  is  to  be 
a  sort  of  summing  up  of  the  historical  training  that  a  pupil 
has  received,  it  should  not  be  attempted  before  the  last  half 
of  the  eleventh  year.  Preferably  the  paper  should  be  written 
in  connection  with  the  work  in  American  history  usually 
begun  in  the  twelfth  year,  and,  since  it  is  to  be  a  scientific  and 
a  somewhat  elaborate  undertaking,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  give  the  students  rather  specific  instructions  for 
preparing  it.  If  possible  a  copy  similar  to  the  following  should 
be  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  member  of  the  class. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  PREPARATION  OF  A  TERM  PAPER 

I.  Reading  and  note-taking. 

I.  Having  decided  upon  your  topic  in  consultation  with  the  in- 
structor, begin  actual  work  on  it  by  reading  some  general 
accounts  such  as  you  will  find  in  an  encyclopedia,  a 
139 


140  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

historical  dictionary,  or  an  elaborate  treatment  of  the 
field  in  which  your  topic  hes.  Make  an  information 
outHne  of  each  general  account  you  read. 

2.  Make  a"  list  of  the  references  you  find  in  doing  your  general 

reading.  Encyclopedia  articles  often  have  valuable  Usts 
following  the  discussions.  Other  general  accounts  may 
include  reference  material  in  footnotes  or  in  the  general 
bibhography  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  or  book. 

3.  Begin  your  serious  reading  on  any  one  of  the  references 

you  now  have  on  your  subject.  Continue  until  your  list 
has  been  exhausted. 

4.  As  you  read  your  references  secured  in  your  preliminary 

survey  you  will  find  others.  List  all  of  these  for  future 
use.    Continue  this  until  you  have  finished  your  reading. 

5.  In   reading   an  individual   reference,    first   glance    through 

the  entire  discussion.  Next,  fix  in  your  mind  the  big 
points  discussed.  Decide  upon  a  name  for  each  of  these. 
Let  these  names  form  the  basis  of  your  note-taking  on 
the  reference.  If  you  decide,  upon  glancing  through  the 
reference,  that  it  contains  nothing  on  your  topic  which 
you  do  not  already  have,  give  it  no  further  attention. 

6.  Take  your  notes  on  sheets  of  paper  of  a  convenient  size. 

Write  on  but  one  side.  Place  but  one  note  on  each 
page.  Write  the  subject  of  the  note  at  the  top  and 
the  reference  at  the  bottom,  using  the  last  name  of 
the  author,  title  in  abbreviated  form,  volume,  and  page. 

7.  Before  leaving  a  reference  on  which  you  have  taken  notes 

secure  your  complete  bibliographical  data,  including 
author's  full  name,  full  title  of  the  work,  date  and 
place  of  publication,  volumes  in  the  series  and  the 
volume  you  have  used,  and  edition.  Write  this  in- 
formation on  a  separate  card.  You  may  later  want 
to  use  it  in  your  permanent  bibliography.  If  your 
bibliography  is  to  be  annotated,  write  your  annotation 
on  the  card  at  the  time  you  make  it  out. 

8.  In  taking  your  notes  you  may  paraphrase,  quote  directly, 

summarize,  or  outline.  The  first  and  second  of  these 
forms  will  prove  of  most  value  when  you  come  to 
write  your  paper.     Occasionally  thoughts  will  come  to 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  141 

you  on  the  subject  when  reading  a  reference ;  if  they 
do,  do  not  neglect  to  jot  them  down.  If  in  paraphras- 
ing you  write  out  in  the  best  English  at  your  command 
just  what  you  think  you  will  later  say  in  your  paper, 
you  can  often  incorporate  it  bodily, 
g.  All  notes  should,  of  course,  be  legible.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  this  respect,  especially  with  direct  quota- 
tions, where  spelling,  punctuation,  and  capitalization 
must  be  exactly  as  they  are  in  the  matter  quoted.  To 
make  sure  of  tliis  on  finishing  your  copy  always  check 
it  against  the  original. 
II.  Organizing  and  writing. 

1.  On  finishing  your  reading  or  when  the  time  is  nearing  for 

the  outHne  of  your  paper  to  be  submitted  to  the 
instructor,  go  through  your  notes  and  classify  them. 
They  will  be  likely  to  fall  into  three  or  four  large 
groups.  If  it  now  appears  that  you  are  short  of 
material  in  any  one  group,  center  the  remainder  of 
your  reading  upon  it. 

2.  Make   a   guidance    outline    containing   as   many   subtopics 

as  your  notes  will  justify.  Arrange  your  notes  in  each 
main  division  in  the  same  order  as  your  subtopics. 

3.  With  your  outline  of  the  first  chief  division  before  you, 

as  well  as  your  notes  on  it  properly  arranged,  write  the 
draft  of  this  part  of  your  paper.  Repeat  this  procedure 
for  each  main  section. 

4.  Form  for  completed  paper. 

a.  On  the  first  page  write  nothing  but  the  title  and  your 

name. 

b.  On  the  second  page  give  a  brief  foreword  or  preface. 

In  this  state  what  you  have  tried  to  accomplish  in 
your  paper,  your  point  of  view,  special  difficulties  you 
have  encountered,  and  any  other  matters  of  hke 
character. 

c.  On  the  page  following  the  preface  repeat  the  title  ;  skip 

a  line  and  begin  the  body  of  the  paper. 

d.  Place  the  bibliography  last.    Include  in  it  only  references 

actually  used  in  the  preparation  of  your  paper  and 
arrange  them  in  alphabetic  order. 


142  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

III.  Some  footnote  reference  technic. 

1.  What  should  appear  in  footnotes.    All  material  unnecessary 

to  the  general  continuity  of  the  narrative  should  appear 
in  footnotes,  if  used  in  your  paper.  This  material  in- 
cludes explanations  of  a  certain  type,  illustrations  in 
the  form  of  concrete  descriptions,  additional  facts,  and 
statements  of  different  views  on  a  matter  in  dispute. 

2.  When  to  use  the  abbreviation  for  page  and  pages.     Use 

"p."  for  "page"  and  "pp."  for  "pages"  if  the  book 
is  a  one-volume  publication.  If  there  is  more  than  one 
volume,  it  is  unnecessary  to  use  either.  Examples  : 
Dodd,  Expansion  and  Conflict,  p.  62 ;  Roosevelt,  Win- 
ning of  the  West,  I,  317. 

3.  How  to  punctuate  the  titles  of  books.  The  order  of  details  is  : 

author's  family  name,  followed  by  a  comma ;  title  of  the 
book,  underscored  ;  number  and  date  of  edition  in  paren- 
thesis, if  desired,  followed  by  a  comma  ;  reference  to  vol- 
ume and  page,  followed  by  a  period.  Example:  Kalm, 
Travels  into  North  America  (2d  ed.,  1772),  II,  69. 

4.  How   to  punctuate   the   titles   of  articles.     The  order  of 

details  is : .  family  name  of  the  author  of  the  article, 
followed  by  a  comma ;  title  of  the  article,  quoted,  and 
followed  by  a  comma;  name  of  the  publication  in 
which  the  article  appears;  underscored  and  followed 
by  a  comma  ;  reference  to  volume  followed  by  date  in 
parenthesis  ;  comma  ;  page  followed  by  a  period.  Ex- 
ample: Curtis,  "The  Place  of  Sacrifice,"  Biblical  World, 
XXI  (1902),  208. 

5.  The   meaning  and  use   of   "f."   and  "§."   and  "pp.'^  in 

connection  with  them.  "Pp.  8  f."  means  page  8  and 
the  following  page  (in  other  words,  pages  8  and  9); 
"pp.  10  ff."  refers  to  page  10  and  the  following  pages  (in 
other  words,  pages  10,  11,  12,  and  as  many  more  as  con- 
tain any  of  the  material  to  which  the  reference  applies). 
Examples  :  Abbott,  Women  in  Industry,  pp.  38  f. ; 
Drake,.  Pioneer  Life  in  Kentucky,  pp.  60  ff.  If  you 
desire  to  show  that  you  have  used  all  the  material  on 
certain  pages,  do  not  use  "f."  or  "ff.,"  but  do  it  thus  : 
pp.  82-84,  which  means  pages  82  to  84  inclusive. 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  143 

6.  When  not  to  repeat  the  author's  name  and  the  title  of  the 

work  in  the  footnote.  If  the  author's  name  is  men- 
tioned in  the  body  of  your  paper,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  repeat  it  in  the  footnote ;  or  if  both  author  and 
title  are  included  in  the  body  of  your  paper,  neither 
should  appear  in  the  reference.  Examples  :  If  you 
have  such  an  expression  in  the  body  of  your  paper 
as  'Xhanning,  in  his  History  of  the  United  States ^ 
claims  that,"  the  footnote  would  be  "Vol.  Ill,  p.  62." 
Or  if  you  should  use  the  assertion  "Smith,  in  her 
Colonial  Days  and  Ways,  declares,"  the  footnote  would 
be  either  "p.  62,"  "pp.  62  f.,"  "pp.  62  ff.,"  or  "pp.  62- 
65,"  depending  upon  the  length  of  the  quotation. 

7.  The  meaning  and  use  of  the  abbreviations  'Hbid."  "ib." 

^Hd"  "Ibid."  and  "ib."  are  abbreviations  of  the  Latin 
ibidem,  meaning  "in  the  same  place,"  "at  the  place,"  or 
"in  the  book  already  mentioned."  They  are  used  in  order 
to  avoid  the  repetition  of  a  reference.  "Id."  is  an  ab- 
breviation of  the  Latin  word  idem,  meaning  "  the  same," 
"the  same  as  above,  or  before."  Of  the  three  "ibid." 
is  most  frequently  employed.  It  is  used*  when  each 
succeeding  title  is  the  same  as  the  next  preceding  one. 
Example  : 

1  Am.  State  Papers,  "Finance,"  II,  432. 

2  Ibid.  p.  435. 
^Ibid.  p.  427. 

8.  The  meaning  and  use  of  the  abbreviations'^  op.  cit."  and"  loc. 

cit."  "Op.  cit."  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  Latin  phrase 
opere  citato,  meaning  "in  the  work  cited";  and  "loc.  cit." 
is  an  abbreviation  of  the  Latin  phrase  loco  citato, 
meaning  "in  the  place  (previously)  cited."  "Op.  cit."  is 
most  commonly  used.  When  a  title  is  mentioned  on 
one  page  and  you  desire  to  mention  it  again  two  or 
three  or  more  pages  in  advance,  use  "<op.  cit."  instead  of 
repeating  the  title.  Example  :  If  the  reference  "Coxe, 
A  View  of  the  United  States,  pp.  49  f."  was  used  on 
page  9  of  your  paper  and  you  wish  to  cite  the  same 
book  on  page  15,  you  would  use  "Coxe,  op.  cit.  p.  52" 
and  thus  avoid  a  useless  repetition. 


144  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

IV.  The  complete  bibliography. 

I.  Confine  your  bibliography  to  the  titles  actually  used  in 
working  up  your  paper. 
'       2.  Arrange  alphabetically  by  authors. 

3.  Annotate  the  references  that  give  unusual  or  unique  treat- 

ments of  the  topic. 

4.  The  order  of  details  for  each  title  is :  author's  full  name 

or  initials,  followed  by  a  period  ;  the  title  of  the  work, 
underscored  and  followed  by  a  period ;  number  of 
volumes  if  more  than  one,  followed  by  a  period ;  place 
of  pubhcation  followed  by  a  comma ;  and  date  of 
pubUcation  followed  by  a  period.  This  same  order 
holds  for  an  article,  the  name  of  the  publication  taking 
the  place  of  the  book  and  the  article  being  quoted. 
Examples  : 

a.  Olmstead,  F.  L.    A  Journey  in  the  Back  Country.    New 

York,  i860. 

b.  Vogel,  William.    ''Home  Life  in  Early  Indiana,"  Indiana 

Magazine    of    History,    Vol.    X,    Nos.    2    and    3. 
Bloomington,  Ind.,  1914. 

This  rather  long  list  of  directions  should  not 'be  given  to 
the  students  in  its  entirety  at  the  outset.  The  last  two 
sections  should  not  be  given  out  until  their  contents  have  been 
developed  inductively  in  the  class.  The  last  section,  however, 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  student  before  he  does 
much  on  his  paper,  so  that  he  will  know  just  what  bibliographi- 
cal data  to  collect.  Since  section  three  will  not  actually  be 
needed  until  the  pupil  is  ready  to  begin  the  writing  of  his 
paper,  some  attention  should  be  given  to  it  about  once  a 
week  until  all  the  items  have  been  discussed.  If  this  plan  is 
followed,  the  rules  will  not  seem  formal  and  their  application 
will  give  no  serious  difficulties. 

The  steps  in  the  preparation  of  the  term  paper  have  been 
outlined,  elsewhere  and  need  not  be  repeated  here.^  Something, 
however,  should  be  said  about  selecting  suitable  subjects  for 

iPp.  II2f. 


f 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  145 


the  paper.  It  is  obvious,  of  course,  that  it  is  folly  to  assign 
subjects  on  which  there  is  no  available  material.  Granting 
that  the  material  is  at  hand,  topics  should  be  definite,  clearly 
stated,  admit  of  concrete  treatment,  have  a  rather  definite 
beginning  and  ending,  and  not  extend  over  too  long  a  period 
of  time.  The  following  list  of  topics  actually  used  by  a  class 
in  American  history  meets  most  of  these  requirements. 

1.  The  Defense  of  the  Alamo. 

2.  The  Religion  of  the  Slaves. 

3.  The  Invention  of  the  Telegraph. 

4.  Jackson's  Kitchen  Cabinet. 

5.  The  Oregon  Trail. 

6.  The  McCormick  Reaper. 

7.  The  Sante  Fe  Trail. 

8.  Early  American  Prisons. 

9.  The  Discovery  of  Gold    in    California. 

10.  Food  and  Table  Manners  a  Century  Ago. 

11.  Early  Systems  of  Labor  in  the  United  States. 

12.  Old-Time  Schools. 

13.  The  Peggy   Eaton   Affair. 

14.  The  Origin  of  Star-Spangled  Banner. 

15.  The  Birth  of  a  Nation  (Founding  of  Liberia). 

16.  The  Battle  of  Bladensburg  and  the  Burning  of  Washington. 

17.  Intemperance  in  America  One  Hundred  Years  Ago. 

18.  Early  Stagecoaches. 

19.  Wildcat  Banking. 

20.  The  Panic  of  1837.. 

21.  Customs  and  Manners  a  Century  Ago. 

22.  Early  Steamboats  on  the  Atlantic. 
2^.  The  Steamboat. 

24.  Labor  Conditions  a  Century  Ago. 

25.  Negro  Amusements  on  a  Southern  Plantation. 

Some  excellent  papers  should  result  from  these  or  similar 
subjects.  Even  though  many  of  the  papers  are  meritorious, 
few  of  them  as  a  rule  should  be  read  in  class,  because  the  paper 
itself  is  an  individual  and  not  a  class  product.     It  is  well, 


146  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

of  course,  to  use  the  material  in  some  of  the  papers  in  the 
form  of  special  reports  as  the  course  progresses,  whenever  this 
is  possible.  This  takes  for  granted,  however,  that  the  accounts 
are  of  vital  interest  and  importance  to  the  work  of  the  day 
on  which  they  are  given. 

The  Notebook  in  History  Teaching 

The  notebook  in  history  teaching  has  had  an  interesting 
career.  Generally  speaking,  history  teachers  imitated  the 
science  teachers  in  adopting  it  as  a  regular  feature  of  their 
work.  The  scientific  spirit  that  was  injected  into  history 
during  the  last  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  resulted 
in  the  source  method  when  taken  down  into  the  high  school. 
The  source  method  could  not  be  employed  successfully  on  this 
level  without  considerable  use  of  the  permanent  notebook.  See- 
ing the  utilization  of  the  notebook  in  connection  with  teaching 
history  by  the  source  method,  the  advocates  of  the  topical 
method  soon  discovered  that  it  would  be  a  valuable  adjunct  to 
their  teaching,  so  they,  too,  quite  universally  adopted  it.  In 
fact,  it  finally  came  to  pass  that  only  those  old-fashioned 
teacliers  who  still  taught  by  the  page-by-page  and  chapter-by- 
chapter  textbook  method  found  no  use  for  the  notebook  in  their 
teaching.  Hence,  as  the  situation  now  stands,  it  is  probably 
true  that  a  substantial  majority  of  high-school  history  teachers 
require  their  students  to  keep  some  kind  of  a  notebook  in  con- 
nection with  their  history  work. 

Even  though  the  notebook  is  quite  generally  employed  in 
high-school  history  teaching,  there  are  certain  disadvantages 
or  evils  connected  with  its  use  which  should  be  brought  to 
the  attention  even  of  its  most  ardent  supporters.  Chief  among 
these  are  (i)  frequently  time  which  might  be  better  spent 
is  wasted  in  copying  material  for  the  notebook ;  ( 2 )  too  much 
dependence  is  placed  on  the  notebook ;  in  other  words,  pupils 
are  likely  to  feel  that  if  they  have  a  thing  in  their  notebook 
there  is  no  need  of  actually  learning  it ;  (3)  properly  to  grade 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  147 

and  check  up  notebook  work  takes  too  much  of  the  teacher's 
time  and  energy ;  (4)  pupils  are  likely  to  learn  the  mechanics 
of  notebook-making  rather  than  the  substance  of  history ; 
(5)  the  work  often  degenerates  into  mere  copying ;  (6)  if  too 
detailed,  notebook  work  tends  to  deaden  the  work  in  history ; 
(7)  there  is  danger  of  notebook  work  becoming  formal  and  de- 
generating into  mere  drudgery;  (8)  too  often  the  notebook 
when  finished  contains  very  little  or  nothing  of  permanent 
value ;  (9)  the  notebook  is  too  often  prepared  for  the  teacher's 
benefit  rather  than  the  pupil's.  In  justice  to  the  use  of  the 
notebook  in  studying  history  it  should  be  said  that  none  of 
these  disadvantages  or  evils  is  inherent  in  it,  but  that  they  all 
result  from  the  abuse  and  the  misuse  of  a  tool  which  has 
num,erous  potential  values. 

On  looking  at  the  other  side  of  the  question  one  discovers 
that  there  are  certain  advantages  claimed  for  the  history 
notebook  which  largely  offset  the  disadvantages.  Some  of 
these  benefits  as  given  by  high-school  teachers  themselves  are 

( 1 )  it  aids  in  crystallizing,  classifying,  and  organizing  material ; 

(2)  it  is  especially  valuable  for  review;  (3)  it  develops  such 
habits  as  order,  promptness,  neatness,  accuracy,  and  definite- 
ness  in  history  work;  (4)  it  helps  in  differentiating  the  im- 
portant from  the  unimportant  points,  thus  developing  the 
power  to  evaluate  material;  (5)  pupils  themselves  say  that 
the  history  notebook  is  one  of  the  most  helpful  devices  used 
by  the  teacher  to  cause  them  to  appreciate  and  understand 
history  ;  (6)  it  gives  an  additional  avenue  for  expressing  ideas, 
namely,  the  motor,  and  is,  therefore,  a  great  aid  to  the  motor- 
minded  individuals,  causing  them  to  take  more  interest  in 
the  subject.^  From  these  statements  of  experienced  teachers 
it  will  be  seen  that  a  notebook,  if  wisely  used,  can  be  made  a 
valuable  adjunct  to  high-school  history  teaching.  The  ad- 
vantages seem  to  outweigh  the  disadvantages ;  in  other  words, 

1  Gold,  "  Methods  and  Content  of  Courses  in  History  in  the  High  Schools 
of  the  United  States,"  School  Review,  XXV,  274. 


148  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

there  seem  to  be  no  drawbacks  or  evils  that  cannot  be  over- 
come by  skillful  use.  Granting  the  truth  of  this  statement, 
there  remains  but  one  conclusion,  namely,  that  the  keeping  of  a 
permanent  notebook  by  each  student  in  connection  with  his 
history  work  is  a  worth-while  thing  to  do  and  should  become 
a  practice  in  all  high-school  history  teaching.  It  should  never 
become  an  end  in  itself,  however,  but  should  always  be  kept 
subordinated  to  the  acquisition  of  historical  knowledge  and  to 
the  securing  of  mental  training  along  historical  lines. 

Inexperienced  teachers  are  sometimes  uncertain  as  to  the 
types  of  material  that  should  appear  in  the  notebook.  Before 
any  great  amount  of  assistance  can  be  given  them  in  this 
matter,  some  understanding  will  have  to  be  reached  as  to  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  term  "notebook."  As  used  in  this  dis- 
cussion the  permanent  history  notebook  implies  a  depository 
for  that  part  of  the  student's  daily  historical  activities  which 
are  expressed  in  the  form  of  written  exercises,  maps,  sketches, 
diagrams,  etc.,  which  may  or  may  not  come  before  his  teacher's 
eye  and  which  he,  himself,  retains  for  reference  or  review  at 
least  until  the  end  of  the  course.  With  this  as  a  working 
definition,  the  following  exercises  might  well"  be  included  in  a 
worth-while  history  notebook:  maps  and  chronological  out- 
lines or  charts;  notes  on  lectures  given  by  the  teacher  and 
reports  given  by  other  members  of  the  class;  biographical 
sketches ;  special  tabulations  and  comparisons ;  short  and  long 
themes ;  reference  lists  ;  test  and  examination  papers ;  briefs ; 
guidance  and  information  outlines ;  notes  taken  in  class  other 
than  those  on  lectures  and  reports ;  surmnaries  of  periods ; 
text  analyses;  special  dictations  by  the  teacher;  graphs,  dia- 
grams, and  plans;  lists  of  important  dates-events;  lists  of 
historical  personages;  notes  on  collateral  reading;  statistical 
tables,  cartoons,  pictures,  and  drawings ;  and  edited  newspaper 
and  magazine  clippings  of  a  historical  character.  With  this 
list  before  him  the  beginning  teacher  need  not  hesitate  about 
what  to  have  placed  in  the  permanent  notebook  in  history. 


I 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  149 


There  is,  however,  another  fact  which  he  must  keep  in  mind 
in  selecting  from  this  Hst  those  he  expects  to  emphasize  in 
each  class.  This  is  no  other  than  the  threefold  purpose 
underlying  all  permanent  notebook  work  in  history,  which  is, 
stated  briefly,  for  acquisition,  for  expression,  and  for  refer- 
ence. Now,  if  the  teacher  desires  to  emphasize  acquisition 
in  a  particular  course,  he  will  select  the  notebook  exercises 
with  this  form  of  activity  in  mind;  or  if  he  desires  to  em- 
phasize each  of  the  three  about  equally,  he  will  select  his 
material  accordingly.  For  example,  if  the  teacher's  aim  is  to 
have  his  pupils  acquire  facts  and  framework,  he  will  em- 
phasize charts,  chronological  tables,  lists  of  important  dates, 
graphs,  maps,  plans,  digests,  notes  on  lectures,  reports, 
and  collateral  reading ;  if  his  desire  is  to  accentuate  expression, 
chief  attention  will  be  given  to  summaries  of  periods  or  topics, 
themes,  term  reports,  and  biographical  sketches ;  and,  finally, 
if  his  purpose  is  to  have  a  notebook  mainly  for  reference, 
he  will  stress  records  of  collateral  reading  done,  book  lists, 
assignments,  elaborate  bibliographies,  and  the  like.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  second  of  these  three  is  a  higher  and 
more  difficult  performance  than  either  of  the  other  two.  The 
exercises  for  expression  should  therefore  be  carefully  graded 
and  adapted  to  the  varying  degrees  of  intellectual  maturity 
of  the  students  in  the  different  classes.  To  be  specific,  one 
would  not  ask  the  sophomores  to  write  the"  term  paper  con- 
templated in  this  chapter,  but  would  demand  of  them  short 
themes  and  summaries. 

The  question  is  sometimes  asked  by  inexperienced  history 
teachers,  "What  is  the  best  form  for  a  history  notebook?" 
There  is,  of  course,  no  best  form.  The  thing  to  do  in  deter- 
mining this  matter  is  to  use  the  form  best  adapted  to  the  class 
and  the  work  required  of  it.  The  most  satisfactory  notebooks 
ever  kept  by  a  high-school  class  taught  by  the  writer  were 
books  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  the  pupils  being  left  entirely  to 
their  own  choice  as  to  the  form  to  be  used.    While  this  plan 


150  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

secured  originality,  interest,  enthusiasm,  thoroughness,  and 
accuracy,  a  loose-leaf  notebook  of  a  convenient  size  would 
probably  have  attained  the  same  results  if  properly  managed. 
Since  there  is  no  satisfactory  ready-made  history  notebook  on 
the  market  as  there  is  in  physics,  chemistry,  and  general 
science,  the  only  thing  left  for  the  teacher  is  to  have  his  pupils 
use  a  form  of  his  own  choice,  which  slfould  be  inexpensive, 
convenient,  and  preferably  loose-leaf  made  up  of  No.  6  un- 
ruled paper. 

If,  in  a  large  high  school,  uniformity  is  desired  in  the  matter 
of  keeping  history  notebooks,  it  will  be  necessary  to  formulate 
specific  directions  relative  to  their  construction  just  as  in  the  case 
of  the  term  paper.  The  following  instructions  to  students  and 
teachers  concerning  the  use  of  the  notebook  in  history  study 
at  one  time  employed  in  the  Sioux  City  High  School,  Sioux 
City,  Iowa,  will  serve  to  illustrate  what  is  meant  here : 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  STUDENTS  AND  TEACHERS  RELATIVE  TO 
THE  USE  OF  THE  NOTEBOOK  IN  HISTORY  STUDY 

I.  Each  student  in  the  History  department  is  required  to  have 
a  Sioux  City  High  School  History  Notebook. 

1.  For  sale  in  the  High  School  Book  Shop. 

2.  Notebook  covers  cost  lo  cents. 

3.  Filler,  fifty  sheets,  costs  10  cents. 

II.  The  notebook  work  will  count  ^Sj  per  cent,  the  recitation 
33i  per  cent,  and  the  test  33  J  per  cent  in  determining 
the  student's  grade  for  a  six  weeks'  period. 

III.  All  writing  in  the  notebook  must  be  done  in  ink. 

IV.  The  outline  form  of  notes  is  recommended — that  is,  con- 

densing the  material  read  into  short  sentences,  clauses, 
etc.  under  topical  headings. 
V.  Material  to  be  placed  in  the  notebook : 

I.  An  outline  of  all  special  reports  given  in  class. 

a.  The  heading  for  the  report  shofuld  contain  the  subject 
and  number,  references  read,  and  name  of  student 
giving  report. 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  151 

2.  An  outline  of  the  most  important  points  made  in  the 

recitation. 

3.  An   outline    of   the   collateral   reading   required   by   the 

instructor. 

4.  All  maps,  charts,  art  drawings,  newspaper  clippings,  etc. 

that  may  be  required  by  the  instructor. 
VI.  What  the  notebook  should  show : 

I.  Intelligent  reading  and  organization. 
•2.  Good  English,  spelling,  and  penmanship. 

3.  Uniform  margins  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  width. 

4.  Neat  topical  headings  or  subdivisions  indicated  by  Roman 

numerals. 

5.  The  reference  subject  and  references  placed  on  the  first 

and  second  lines  of  the  sheet. 

a.  Reference  should  include  title  of  book,  author,  volume, 

and  pages  read. 

b.  Subject  and  references  may  be  written  in  red  ink  or 

underscored  for  emphasis. 
VII.  Greek  History  students  should  outline  important  parts  of 
the  textbook  in  place  of  the  collateral  reading  mentioned 
in  V. 
VIII.  Since  the  value  of  notebook  work  depends  quite  largely 
upon  careful  supervision  by  the  instructor,  it  is  recom- 
mended : 

1.  That  the  notebooks  be  inspected  by  instructor  at  least 

twice  each  six  weeks. 

2.  That  an  0.  K.  or  criticism  be  placed  on  the  notebooks 

at  the  first  inspection. 

3.  That  a  grade  be  placed  on  the  notebook  at  the  second 

inspection. 

4.  That  a  grade  of  F  on  the  notebook  means  a  condition 

in  that  subject. 

5.  The  condition  must  be  removed  within  one  week  follow- 

ing the  grading. 
IX.  Suggestive    weekly   amounts    of    collateral    reading   are    as 
follows  : 

1.  Greek  History  (last  six  weeks),  10  pages. 

2.  Roman  History,  10  to  15  pages. 

3.  Medieval  History,  20  to  25  pages. 


152  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

4.  Modern  History,  25  to  30  pages. 

5.  English  History,  30  to  35  pages. 

6.  American  History,  35  to  40  pages. 

7.  Civics,  35  to  40  pages. 

8.  Economics,  35  to  40  pages. 

X.  The  collateral  reading  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  period 
under  consideration  and  the  manner  in  which  the  text- 
book is  used. 
XI.  Frequent  reviews  of  the  notebook  work  should  be  made  by 

the  student  under  the  direction  of  the  instructor. 
XII.  Liberal  credit  is  allowed  for  the  notebook  work,  since  it 
is  an  essential  part  of  History  study. 

XIII.  Many   of   the   better   universities   are   requiring   the   high-- 

school  notebook   as  an   entrance   condition. 

XIV.  The  complete  set  of  notes  must  be  handed  in  to  the  instruc- 

tor, who  will  return  the  same  to  the  student  at  the  close 
of  the  following  semester. 
XV.  An  exception  to  XIV  is  made  in  the  case  of  graduates. 

Whether  or  not  one  agrees  with  each  point  in  the  foregoing 
instructions,  one  must  acknowledge  the  fact  that  they  represent 
an  effort  in  the  right  direction.  For  if  notebook  work  is 
worth  doing,  it  is  worth  doing  well  and  should  have  reasonable 
recognition.  In  a  large  high  school  where  students  are  fre- 
quently changing  from  one  teacher  to  another  there  is  undeni- 
ably a  need  for  the  same  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  notebooks 
that  is  found  in  textbooks  and  examinations. 

There  remains  to  be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  note- 
book, and  all  written  work  for  that  matter,  the  problem  of 
grading,  an  unpleasant  subject  to  overworked  history  teachers 
and  very  unpleasant  to  the  unprepared  ones,  since  so  much  of 
their  time  is  consumed  in  keeping  in  advance  of  the  class. 
Some  teachers  try  to  solve  this  problem  by  short-cut  methods, 
such  as  oral  quizzes  on  notebook  work.^  Short-cut  methods 
are  all  right  in  their  place,  but  there  is  no  royal  road  to  the 
grading  of  notebook  and  written  work  in  history.  The  practical 

1  Whitlow,  "The  History  Notebook,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  IX,  205. 


TERM  PAPER  AND  NOTEBOOK  153 

plan  for  the  well-prepared  and  conscientious  teacher  to  follow 
is  to  have  his  pupils  do  in  written  form  just  what  he  has  time  to 
grade  and  no  more.  Let  the  grading  be  done  with  care, 
especially  as  it  relates  to  the  history  in  the  notes.  Let  the 
pupils  understand  that  the  grade  on  their  notebook  and  written 
work  will  count  a  specific  amount  in  the  determination  of 
their  final  grades.  The  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  proportion  mentioned 
above  is  not  bad,  provided  enough  written  work  is  done  to 
justify  it.  If  the  written  work  is  graded  from  day  to  day  and 
a  record  kept  of  it,  the  burden  does  not  become  an  accumulat- 
ing one.  To  leave  the  grading  of  all  written  work  done  in  six 
weeks  until  the  end  of  the  period  means  that  it  will  not  be 
graded  properly  because  of  the  teacher's  temporal  and  physical 
limitations. 

ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 

Armstrong,  R.  D.  "The  History  Notebook  in  Secondary  Schools," 
History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VII  (1916),  277  ff. 

Gold,  H.  H.  "Methods  and  Content  of  Courses  in  History  in  the  High 
Schools  of  the  United  States,"  School  Review,  XXV  (1917),  274  ff. 

Leffler,  Shepherd.  "  Constructive  Notebook  Work  in  History,"  In- 
diana University  Bulletin,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  10,  pp.  14  ff.  Bloomington, 
Ind.,  1915. 

Lybyer,  Albert  H.  "The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Notebooks  in  the  Teaching 
of  History,"  Proceedings  of  the  North  Central  History  Teachers' 
Association,  pp.  15  ff.,  1910. 

Pearse,  J.  E.  "The  Use  of  the  Notebook  in  High  School  History," 
Texas  History  Teacher's  Bulletin,  Yo\.  II,  No.  i  (November  15,  1913), 
pp.  7ff. 

Smith,  Mary  S.  "Directions  for  History  Work  in  the  History  Depart- 
ment of  Meredith  College,  N.  C,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  I 
(1909),  90. 

Sullivan,  James.  "Notebooks  and  Readings,"  History  Teacher's  Maga- 
zine, II  (1911),  227  ff. 

Whitlow,  C.  M.  "  The  History  Notebook,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine, 
IX  (1918),  205. 


L 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  HISTORY 
TEACHING 

History  teachers  have  always  measured  the  results  of  their 
teaching  in  one  way  or  another.  The  system  of  grading  and 
promotion  which  is  such  an  integral  part  of  the  organization 
of  every  school  has  forced  them  to  do  this.  The  most  efficient 
way,  however,  to  test  the  results  of  their  efforts  has  ever 
remained  a  puzzling  problem  with  well-meaning  and  conscien- 
tious individuals.  The  formal  written  examination  at  stated 
intervals  has  been  the  instrument  used  in  most  cases.  To  this 
mode  of  measuring  the  results  of  instruction  in  history,  how- 
ever, there  have  recently  appeared  many  objectors,  most  of 
whom  are  engaged  in  phases  of  educational  work  other  than 
the  teaching  of  history.  These  individuals  desire  some  sort 
of  what  they  term  standardized  tests  to  determine  objectively 
the  results  of  instruction  in  history.  Inasmuch  as  the  tradi- 
tional history  examination  still  remains  the  most  prevalently 
used  method  of  testing  in  a  forrnal  way  the  results  of  one's 
teaching  and  since  standardized  tests  are  likely  to  play  an 
important  role  in  the  future,  it  seems  appropriate  to  give  these 
phases  of  a  history  teacher's  work  a  separate  consideration. 

The  History  Examination 

As  used  in  this  discussion  the  history  examination  means  a 
formal  written  exercise  performed  by  each  member  of  a  class 
in  which  specific  answers  are  put  down  to  questions  set  by 
the  teacher.  In  actual  practice  these  exercises  occur  once  a 
month,  once  every  six  weeks,  on  finishing  certain  big  topics 

IS4 


MEASURING  RESULTS  155 

or  divisions  of  the  course,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  or  semes- 
ter. They  can  be  justified  on  the  grounds  that,  if  properly 
managed,  they  give  a  splendid  motive  for  reviewing  the  sub- 
ject, furnish  a  basis  for  promotion,  find  their  counterpart  in 
everyday  life,  and  serve  as  a  test  of  the  efficiency  of  the 
teacher's  own  work. 

While  the  history  examination  can  be  justified  on  the  fore- 
going grounds,  there  are  certain  adverse  criticisms  of  it  in  its 
traditional  form  and  the  manner  of  giving  it  which  deserve 
some  attention.  For  example,  it  has  been  said  that  the  cus- 
tomary manner  of  giving  a  history  examination  causes  the 
pupil  to  waste  much  valuable  time  in  reviewing  unnecessary  y 
and  unimportant  material  and  to  gamble  on  the  questions 
the  teacher  is  likely  to  ask.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  asserted 
that  the  examination  disappoints  and  discourages  the  pupil, 
when,  after  making  a  thorough  and  painstaking  preparation  for 
it,  he  makes  a  low  grade  because  he  failed  to  anticipate  cor- 
rectly the  questions  the  teacher  asks  him.  Other  adverse 
criticisms  are  that  memory  is  emphasized  at  the  expense  of 
doing  and  reasoning ;  that  no  confidence  can  be  placed  in  the 
results  because  history  grades  vary  so  widely  when  made  up  by 
different  teachers ;  that  in  most  cases  the  examination  is  unfair 
both  to  the  pupil  and  to  the  teacher ;  that  it  lacks  sufficient 
incentive  for  thorough  preparation;  and  that,  as  a  rule,  its 
approach  is  dreaded  by  the  pupils.^     . 

In  all  probability  the  shortcomings  of  the  history  exami- 
nation have  been  unduly  emphasized  by  its  objectors ;  for 
example,  the  charge  that  the  grading  is  unreliable  because 
it  varies  so  much  when  different  individuals  mark  the  same 
paper.  To  test  this  matter  the  writer  has  on  a  number  of 
occasions  asked  the  members  of  his  classes  in  the  teaching  of 
history  to  grade  the  specimen  answers  of  college  candidates 
in  history,  published  by  the  College  Entrance  Examination 

1  See  Gathany,  "The  Giving  of  History  Examinations,"  -Sa^w^r^/Z^w, 
XXXIV,  514  ff. 


156  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Board  in  191 6.  In  this  publication  there  are  four  manuscripts 
receiving  a  low  grade  and  four  a  high  grade,  as  well  as  the 
grade  given  by  the  reader  for  the  Board  to  each  answer.  After 
it  was  made  impossible  to  see  the  mark  that  was  actually  given 
to  each  answer,  a  copy  of  the  pamphlet  containing  the  eight 
manuscripts  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  student  with  the 
request  that  he  grade  them.  On  comparing  the  results  of  one 
hundred  gradings  of  the  eight  manuscripts  it  was  found  that 
there  was  a  somewhat  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  grades 
given  each  manuscript  by  each  grader,  including  the  one  that  it 
actually  received.  For  example,  the  actual  low  grade  in  ancient 
history  was  43  per  cent,  and  half  of  the  marks  in  the  experi- 
ment were  within  five  points  of  this  grade.  Since  there  is 
usually  a  margin  of  ten  points  between  groups  of  grades  below 
70  per  cent,  the  group  into  which  the  manuscript  was  placed 
by  the  actual  mark  was  iiot  changed  in  the  majority  of  the 
cases  in  this  experiment.  It  was  found,  further,  that  more 
uniformity  is  likely  to  occur  with  very  good  and  very  bad 
papers  than  when  the  manuscript  lies  in  the  borderland.  For 
instance,  when  a  manuscript  received  an  actual  mark  of 
92  per  cent,  90  per  cent  of  the  grades  given  by  the  students 
did  not  go  live  below  or  above  this ;  but  when  a  manuscript 
received  an  actual  grade  of  78  per  cent,  not  so  many  of  the 
students  came  as  near  as  five  to  this  mark.  It  would  seem 
from  this  fact  that  the  average  student  is  the  one  who  suffers 
from  the  alleged  lack  of  reliability  in  the  grading  of  his  ex- 
amination papers.  However,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  the  experi- 
ment justifies  the  conclusion  that  there  is  sufficient  reliability 
in  the  grading  of  history  papers  to  make  it  reasonably  fair  to 
all  students  for  the  teacher  to  use  an  examination  grade  as  a 
basis  for  determining  at  least  one  third  of  the  final  grade  they 
are  to  receive  in  a  course  in  history. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  answer  each  of  the  adverse 
criticisms  of  the  traditional  history  examination  listed  above ; 
in  fact,  there  is  no  thought  in  this  discussion  of  mitigating  the 


li 


MEASURING  RESULTS  157 

evils  now  existing  in  the  administration  of  this  medieval  insti- 
tution. Most  individuals  are  willing  to  admit  that  in  some 
localities  the  situation  is  bad  in  the  extreme.  Because  of  this 
fact  the  chief  problem  with  serious-minded  history  teachers  is 
to  find  a  way  to  use  an  inherently  valuable  tool  to  the  best 
advantage  in  connection  with  their  teaching.  Little  worth- 
while work  has  been  done  on  this  phase  of  the  subject.  On 
the  matter  of  changing  the  emphasis  from  memorizing  to  doing 
and  thinking  Professor  Johnson^  suggests  the  following  as 
tests  of  the  ability  to  do  and  to  reason :  interpret  a  map 
or  picture ;  analyze  a  paragraph  or  page  in  history ;  find 
material  on  a  given  topic;  solve  by  use  of  material  a 
simple  problem  in  criticism ;  recognize  in  given  facts  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  probability ;  judge  from  a  given  description 
some  historical  character;  discover  in  given  conditions,  past 
and  present,  resemblances,  differences,  relations,  tendencies; 
organize  a  given  collection  of  facts;  select  from  the  work  of 
a  term  or  year  facts  of  special  importance  and  explain  why 
they  are  important.  By  incorporating  some  of  these  phases 
of  work  into  his  examination  the  teacher  will  be  able  to  change 
it  from  a  mere  memory  exercise  to  one  which  tests  other  equally 
important  faculties.  Professor  Johnson  feels  that  not  more 
than  one  fourth,  or  perhaps  one  third,  of  the  examination 
should  be  given  over  to  a  test  of  memory. 

Many  serious-minded  history  teachers  are  making  strenuous 
attempts  to  make  the  history  examination  something  other 
than  a  mere  test  of  memory.  A  splendid  example  of  a  final 
examination  in  history  which  purports  to  test  the  ability  of 
pupils  to  hunt  down  material  in  libraries  and  facts  in  books, 
to  interpret  the  printed  page,  and  to  organize  in  relation  to  a 
given  problem  the  information  thus  obtained  is  contained  in 
an  account  of  some  experiments  along  this  line  in  the  Julia 
Richman  High  School,  New  York  City.  The  details  of  these  ex- 
periments are  too  bulky  to  include  here.    In  brief,  the  technic 

^  Teaching  of  History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools,  p.  428. 


158  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

consisted  of  having  the  examination  written  outside  of  school, 
a  copy  of  the  directions  along  with  a  topic  being  given  each 
member  of  the  class  two  or  three  days  before  the  time  set 
by  the  school  program  for  the  final  examination.  No  two  topics 
were  alike  and  none  was  a  subject  which  had  been  previously 
considered  in  class.  A  sample  set  of  these  directions  will  give 
the  reader  a  concrete  notion  of  the  whole  procedure. 

MID-TERM  EXAMINATION  IN  INDUSTRIAL  HISTORY  II 

Directions.  Place  in  Miss  Osgood's  box  in  the  office  before 
2:30,  April  — ,  a  report  on  the  subject  assigned  you  written  in 
ink  or  typewritten.     This  report  must  contain : 

1.  A  list  of  books  which  are  of  use  for  the  subject,  the  title 
and  the  author  of  the  book  to  be  given  in  every  case. 

2.  Notes  on  the  subject  taken  from  one  or  more  of  these  books, 
title  of  the  book  and  pages  consulted  to  head  each  set  of  notes. 

3.  A  two-page  discussion  of  the  assigned  topic. 

4.  At  the  close  of  the  paper  write  and  sign  the  following 
declaration : 

"I  have  received  no  help  in  the  preparation  of  this  report.'' 

Thirty  per  cent  will  be  allowed  for  the  list  of  books.  In  making 
this  section  both  the  number  of  books  obtained  and  the  quality 
of  the  books  will  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Thirty  per  cent  will  be  allowed  for  the  notes.  The  number  of 
facts  obtained  and  the  intelligence  with  which  the  notes  are  taken 
will  be  considered. 

Forty  per  cent  will  be  given  the  discussion.^ 

Miss  Osgood  reports  that  the  final  results  of  her  experi- 
ments were  highly  satisfactory.  For  some  teachers,  however, 
the  chief  virtue  of  such  examinations  is  likely  to  be  that  there 
was  no  reviewing  necessary  to  prepare  for  them,  which  in 
reality  may  or  may  not  be  a  virtue,  the  determining  factor 
being  the  manner  of  conducting  a  review,  or,  in  other  words, 
getting  ready  for  a  final  examination.     There  is  nothing  in 

1  Osgood,  "  Some  Experiments  in  a  New  Type  of  History  Examination," 
History  Teacher's  Magazine y  IX,  338. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  159 

the  review  as  such  to  make  it  dry,  formal,  and  unprofitable. 
Indeed,  if  one  makes  adequate  preparation  for  the  right  sort 
of  a  final  examination  in  history,  its  chief  value  has  been 
attained  before  it  has  been  formally  written,  the  writing  simply 
being  a  confirmation  of  the  results  attained  in  preparing  for 
it.  To  make  the  reviewing  of  a  course  in  history  of  most  value, 
the  class  must  be  led  to  view  it  as  a  whole — to  retell,  as  it 
were,  the  story  of  the  field  of  history  in  which  the  course  lies 
with  all  of  the  elaborations  made  possible  by  the  daily  work 
throughout  the  semester.  In  this  retrospective  view  the  teacher 
should  see  to  it  that  the  maps  made,  dates-events  of  most  im- 
portance, noted  personages,  the  chief  reference  books,  and  the 
like  receive  sufticient  emphasis.  Work  of  this  character  will 
be  certain  to  take  care  of  the  memory  phase  of  the  subject, 
which  is  so  essential  to  a  satisfactory  accomplishment  of  other 
desirable  objectives  in  the  teaching  of  history. 

Miss  Osgood's  experiments  raise  another  question  relative  to 
the  final  examination  in  history,  or  any  other  subject  for  that 
matter :  Should  the  teacher  exempt  from  the  final  test  certain 
pupils  because  of  the  high  character  of  their  work  during  the 
progress  of  the  course?  The  experiments  just  mentioned 
would  seem  to  answer  this  question  in  the  negative,  while 
practice  often  answers  it  affirmatively.  If  one  accepts  the 
latter  of  these  views,  it  seems  that  one  must  at  the  same  time 
admit  that  the  final  examination  is  both  a  reward  and  a  punish- 
ment. Admitting  this,  a  potentially  valuable  educational  tool 
is  brought  into  bad  repute.  Whether  to  exempt  or  not  to 
exempt  certain  students  from  the  final  examination  in  a  sub- 
ject seems  to  be  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  that  all 
questions  have  two  sides ;  for  when  such  an  exercise  is  made 
an  integral  part  of  the  course,  as  it  should  be,  if  given  at  all, 
there  will  be  no  more  reason  for  the  more  capable  students' 
escaping  it  than  for  their  omitting  other  essential  phases  of 
the  work.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  administering  a  final 
examination  in  a  subject  so  that  the  brightest  individual  in 


i6o  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  class  will  receive  proportionately  more  value  in  writing  it 
than  will  the  slowest  member.  There  should  certainly  be  no 
exemption  from  examination  of  the  type  that  Miss  Osgood 
used. 

When  the  final  examination  is  made  an  integral  part  of  the 
work  of  a  course,  as  it  should  be  whenever  administered,  the 
question  inevitably  arises  as  to  what  part  it  shall  play  in  deter- 
mining the  final  grade  in  history.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the 
Sioux  City,  Iowa,  proportion  was  one  third  each  to  notebook 
work,  the  daily  recitation,  and  the  tests  given  once  every  six 
weeks. ^  In  all  probability  one  third  is  too  much  to  give  to 
tests  and  examinations.  While  they  are  or  can  be  made  valu- 
able adjuncts  to  the  course,  it  does  not  seem  that  they  should 
count  any  more  than  one  fourth  or  even  less  in  the  final 
make-up  of  one's  grade  in  history. 

So  far  this  discussion  has  concerned  itself  with  examination 
over  which  the  history  teacher  has  complete  control.  These 
are  by  no  means  the  only  ones  with  which  his  students  may 
have  to  cope.  If  they  should  desire  to  enter  certain  colleges 
on  graduating  from  the  high  school,  they  would  be  required 
to  pass  an  examination  prepared  in  whole  or  in  part  by  outside 
authorities.  Judging  from  the  large  number  of  candidates 
making  a  grade  of  less  than  40  per  cent  in  the  examinations 
in  history  conducted  by  the  College  Examination  Board  since 
1900,  it  is  one  thing  for  a  student  to  pass  successfully  an 
examination  set  by  his  teacher  and  quite  another  thing  to 
pass  one  set  by  an  outsider.  The  difficulty  in  the  latter  case 
has  been  that  teachers  have  failed  to  foresee  what  the  Board 
would  ask.  They  either  emphasized  what  later  proved  to  be 
unimportant  in  the  mind  of  the  individuals  making  the  ques- 
tions or  attempted  to  teach  everything  on  the  same  level,  with 
the  disastrous  results  of  not  doing  anything  very  well. 

The  difficulty  in  the  matter  of  a  history  examination  set 
and  graded  by  some  outside  agency  has  always  been  to  decide 

1  See  p.  150. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  i6i 

just  what  comprises  an  adequate  test  in  history.  While  no 
satisfactory  way  out  of  this  dilemma  has  yet  been  discovered,  a 
small  contribution  toward  the  solution  of  the  problem  was 
made  a  few  years  ago  by  Professor  Foster,  of  Dartmouth 
College.^  In  his  inquiry  Professor  Foster  secured  the  judg- 
ments of  thirty-two  college  or  Examination  Board  readers  and 
thirty- three  candidates  on  the  19 13  list  as  to  the  one  or 
two  questions  which  proved  the  most  adequate  tests  of 
the  students'  knowledge  of  history  and  their  fitness  for  en- 
trance to  college.  These  same  individuals  were  also  asked  to 
designate  the  one  or  two  questions  in  the  same  list  which 
proved  the  most  inadequate  tests  of  the  students'  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  As  a  result  of  this  threefold  inquiry  Professor 
Foster  was  able  to  list  a  number  of  both  adequate  and  inade- 
quate tests.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  questions  proving 
the  most  adequate  and  the  most  inadequate  tests  in  ancient 
and  American  history : 

ADEQUATE  TESTS 

1.  Name  four  Greek  colonies ;  how  was  a  Greek  colony  related 
to  the  parent  state  ?  What  was  the  cause  for  Greek  colonization  ? 
What  was  the  ultimate  fate  of  the  Greek  colonies  ? 

2.  Describe  the  social,  economic,  and  political  life  in  Sparta  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  Contrast  these  conditions  with  those  in 
Athens  at  the  same  time. 

3.  Why  did  the  Sicilian  expedition  fail?  Why  did  its  failure 
prove  more  disastrous  to  Athens  than  that  of  the  Egyptian  expedi- 
tion of  the  years  460-456  b.  c.  ? 

4.  Why  do  we  study  in  our  schools  the  civilization  of  Chaldea, 
although  it  was  overthrown,  rather  than  that  of  China  where  an 
ancient  civilization  still  exists  ? 

5.  What  were  the  causes  of  Greek  colonization?  Describe  the 
method  of  founding  a  colony,  and  state  what  the  relations  of  a 
colony  were  to  the  mother  city. 

^  "  Adequate  Tests  in  History,"  History  Teachers  Magazine,  V,  ii6ff. 


1 62  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

6.  Compare  the  rule  given  to  the  provinces  of  Rome  under  the 
republic  with  that  given  under  the  empire. 

7.  How  did  the  problem  of  foreign  relations  in  the  presidencies 
of  Washington  and  John  Adams  differ  from  those  in  the  presidencies, 
of  Monroe  and  John  Quincy  Adams? 

8.  What  were  the  principal  characteristics  of  industrial  life  in 
New  England  in  1750?  in  1830?  in  1912? 

9.  Indicate  on  the  outline  map  the  area  of  the  states  in  which 
slavery  existed  in  i860,  and  of  the  states  which  seceded.  Explain 
why  the  areas  are  not  the  same. 

10.  Mention  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  Jacksonian  Period, 
with  reference  to  poUtical  life,  economic  development,  and  social 
reforms. 

11.  Compare  the  social  and  industrial  conditions  in  colonial 
Virginia  with  those  in  colonial  Massachusetts.  Indicate  the  time 
which  you  describe.  Mention  the  author  and  title  of  any  books, 
outside  your  textbook,  which  you  have  used  on  this  subject. 

12.  Show  that  you  have  a  definite  knowledge  of  five  of  the  fol- 
lowing, writing  at  least  four  or  five  lines  on  each :  the  Webster- 
Hayne  debate,  Nullification,  the  Compromise  of  1850,  the  Free 
Silver  campaign,  commission  form  of  government  for  cities, 
McKinley  tariff  act. 

INADEQUATE  TESTS 

1.  Indicate  on  the  map  the  independent  members  of  the  Delian 
Confederacy  at  the  opening  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

2.  Outline  the  territorial  growth  of  the  Roman  Empire  from 
the  third  century  B.C.  to  the  second  century  a.d.  Mention  five 
important  additions  of  territory  and  state  the  circumstances  under 
which  each  was  added  to  the  empire. 

3.  Give  some  account  of  the  Roman  Twelve  Tables  and  state 
the  reason  for  drawing  them  up.  Give  the  cause  of  the  First 
Punic  War. 

4.  Trace  the  relations  between  the  Romans  and  the  Etruscans 
in  the  regal  period  and  the  early  repubhc. 

5.  Describe  the  religious  conditions  at  Rome  under  the  early 
empire. 

6.  Write  a  careful  account  of  the  life  of  Roger  Williams. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  163 

7.  Why  is  the  period  1865- 1871  called  the  "Reconstruction 
Period"?     Answer  fully. 

8.  Indicate  on  the  outhne  map  the  principal  changes  in  routes 
between  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  seaboard  between  1800  and  i860. 

9.  Mention  two  important  changes  in  American  industries  due 
to  inventions.  Mention  two  inventions  that  have  aided  the  rapid 
growth  of  cities  during  the  past  century.  State  briefly  two  great 
municipal  problems  resulting  from  this  rapid  growth  of  cities. 

10.  (Answer  A  or  B.)  (A)  Was  the  Compromise  of  1850  a  wise 
or  unwise  measure  ?  Give  your  reasons.  (B)  Show  the  important 
differences  between  the  "Reconstruction"  poHcy  of  Johnson  and 
that  of  Congress. 

11.  (Answer  A  or  B.)  (A)  What  economic  and  industrial  reasons 
led  to  the  defeat  of  the  South  in  the  Civil  War?  (B)  What 
reasons  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission, 1887  ?    Describe  some  of  the  activities  of  this  Commission. 

12.  Contrast  economic  conditions  at  the  North  and  the  South 
before  the  Civil  War. 

Generally  speaking,  the  questions  judged  "most  adequate" 
were  those  which  tested  both  judgment  and  memory,  were 
not  too  general,  and  avoided  the  omnibus  type,  while  the 
least  adequate  ones  were  mainly  tests  of  rote  memory,  were 
too  general  in  character^  and  were  of  the  omnibus  variety. 
A  cursory  scrutiny  of  the  questions  in  the  foregoing  lists  will 
reveal  the  fact  that  each  type  contains  these  characteristics. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  the  examination  as  usually  admin- 
istered contains  so  many  variables,  some  attempts  have  recently 
been  made  to  supplant  it  with  what  has  come  to  be  called 
"standardized  tests."  While  the  movement  has  made  little 
headway  in  history,  some  interesting  attempts  have  been 
made  in  the  matter  of  devising  tests  in  this  field.  To  date 
there  are  on  the  market  at  least  half  a  dozen  tests  in  Amer- 
ican history  and  one  in  ancient  history.  It  is  too  early  to 
pass  final  judgment  on  any  of  these  efforts.  They  are  in- 
teresting, to  say  the  least.  A  few,  indeed,  give  promise  of 
considerable  merit. 


i64  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Standardized  Tests  in  History 

In  reality  it  is  a  misnomer  to  speak  of  standardized  tests 
in  history  in  the  sense  that  they  exist  in  algebra,  arithmetic, 
and  reading,  if  one  means  by  the  expression  "  tests  which  have 
been  scientifically  devised."  Generally  speaking,  "scientifically 
devised"  means  that  the  questions  or  exercises  comprising 
standardized  tests  have  been  selected  and  evaluated  according 
to  a  procedure  which  involves  more  than  mere  opinion ;  that 
by  following  specific  directions  different  teachers  will  assign 
the  same  rank  to  the  same  paper ;  that  the  score  made  by  the 
pupil  taking  the  test  has  a  definite  meaning;  and  that  their 
content  is  such  that  they  may  be  used  again  and  again  with- 
out destroying  their  validity.  Since  none  of  the  tests  to  date 
in  the  field  of  history  meets  these  criteria,  one  cannot  speak 
of  them  as  "standardized  tests."  In  spite  of  this  fact,  how- 
ever, the  history  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  those  now 
available.  Some  he  may  be  able  to  use  with  profit,  others 
will  possess  for  him  informational  value  only. 

What  seems  to  be  the  first  attempt  at  formulating  standard- 
ized tests  in  the  field  of  history  was  made  by  Mr.  D.  F. 
McCollum.^  Since  these  tests  are  rather  brief,  they  can  be 
inserted  in  full  here. 

A  SCALE  IN  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

Test  I.  Dates — Events  (4  minutes)  :  1861,  1789,  1620,  1565, 
1898,  1492,  1619,  1783,  1776,  1846.  This  is  a  list  of  dates,  opposite 
each  of  which  you  write  some  great  event  that  happened  on  that 
date. 

Test  II.  (a)  Men — Events  (5  minutes)  :  This  is  a  list  of 
men.  In  just  a  sentence  tell  who  each  was  or  what  great  thing 
he  did.     (b)  Men,  Chronological  order  (2  minutes)  :    Number  the 

1  First  published  in  the  Texas  History  Teachers'  Bulletin,  Vol.  Ill 
(1915),  No.  2,  pp.  38  ff. ;  and  later  in  Journal  of  Educational  Psychol- 
ogy, VIII  (1917),  257  ff.  They  can  be  secured  in  quantities  from  the 
University  of  Texas,  Austin,  Texas. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  165 

men  in  chronological  order  (that  is,  the  man  that  came  first  in 
history  in  point  of  time  you  are  to  number  i,  the  next  2,  etc.)  : 
John  Burgoyne,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Jefferson  Davis,  Walter 
Raleigh,  John  C.  Calhoun,  Cyrus  H.  McCormick,  George  Dewey, 
Sam  Houston,  Roger  WilHams,  and  James  Oglethorpe. 

Test  III.  Events — Men  (3  minutes)  :  This  is  a  Hst  of  great 
events,  each  of  which  was  accomplished  by  a  man.  Write  the 
name  of  the  man  in  each  case  :  captured  Quebec  during  the  French 
and  Indian  War;  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  invented 
the  telephone;  brought  about  the  Missouri  Compromise;  captured 
the  City  of  Mexico  during  the'Mexican  War;  founded  the  Colony 
of  Maryland  ;  made  a  great  speech  against  the  English  Stamp  Tax  ; 
was  president  of  the  United  States  during  the  Civil  War ;  vetoed 
the  rechartering  of  the  United  States  Bank. 

Test  IV.  Historic  Terms  (7  minutes)  :  Test  IV  is  a  Hst  of 
historic  terms,  each  of  which  you  will  define  in  a  short  sentence : 
Second  Continental  Congress  ;  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  ;  Articles 
of  Confederation ;  Sherman  Antitrust  Law ;  Monroe  Doctrine ; 
Fugitive  Slave  Law ;  Dred  Scott  Decision ;  Alien  and  Sedition 
Laws ;  Nullification  Ordinance  of  South  CaroHna ;  Emancipation 
Proclamation. 

Test  V.  PoHtical  Parties  (5  minutes)  :  Test  V  is  a  blank 
sheet.  On  it  you  will  make  a  Hst  of  aU  the  political  parties  that 
have  arisen  in  the  United  States  since  the  Revolution,  and  state 
one  leading  principle  advocated  by  each. 

Test  VI.  Divisions  of  United  States  History  (5  minutes)  : 
On  the  next  sheet,  also  a  blank,  you  will  divide  the  history  of  the 
United  States  into  a  number  of  great  divisions  or  epochs,  giving 
date  of  each  period. 

Test  VII.  Map  Study  (5  minutes) :  Show,  by  drawing  on  the 
outHne  map,  the  land  boundaries  of  the  United  States  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolution,  and  also  indicate  the  different  acquisitions  of 
territory  since  that  date. 

Tests  similar  to  McCollum's  have  been  worked  out  in  the 
field  of  ancient  history  by  Professor  L.  W.  Sackett,  of  the 
University  of  Texas.  The  following  is  a  list  of  Sackett's 
tests. 


1 66  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

A  SCALE  IN  ANCIENT  HISTORY  i 

Test  No.  I.  For  what  are  the  following  men  noted  :  (i)  Hannibal  ? 
(2)  Khufu  or  Cheops?  (3)  Demosthenes?  (4)  Darius?  (5)  Solon? 

(6)  Charlemagne?  (7)  Attila ?  (8)  Constantine?  (9)  Mithridates? 
(10)  Justinian? 

Test  No.  II.  Name  a  man  noted  in  ancient  history  for  each 
of  the  following:  (i)  orator;  (2)  painter;  (3)  sculptor;  (4)  histo- 
rian ;  (5)  lawgiver ;  (6)  philosopher ;  (7)  general ;  (8)  ruler  (king, 
emperor,  etc.)  ;    (9)  builder;    (10)  poet. 

Test  No.  III.  Give  the  historical  significance  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing :  (i)  Battle  of  Tours  ;  (2)  Age  of  Augustus  ;  (3)  Battle  of  Mil- 
vian  Bridge  ;  (4)  the  church  council  of  Nicaea  ;  (5)  check  of  the 
Saracens  before  Constantinople  ;  (6)  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great ; 

(7)  Age   of  Pericles ;    (8)    founding   of  the  Hebrew  monarchy ; 

(9)  burning  of  Carthage  ;  (10)  Peloponnesian  War. 

Test  No.  IV.  Between  whom  were  the  following  battles  fought : 
(i)Arbela?  (2)  Marathon?  (3)  Metaurus  ?  (4)  Teutoburg Forest ? 
(5)  Chalons  ?    Name  the  victor  in  each  case. 

Test  No.  V.  Give  the  approximate  date  of  each  of  the  following : 
(i)  fall  of  Rome;  (2)  Battle  of  Marathon;  (3)  crowning  of 
Charlemagne  ;   (4)  estabhshment  of  the  Saracen  Kingdom  in  Spain  ; 

(5)  Delian  League  ;  (6)  the  Hegira  ;  (7)  defeat  of  Saracens  by  the 
Germans ;  (8)  Battle  of  Actium ;  (9)  defeat  of  Persians  by  Alex- 
ander ;  (10)  establishment  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Test  No.  VI.  What  do  you  consider  the  most  important  contri- 
bution to  civilization  from  these  peoples:  (i)  Greeks?  (2)  Teu- 
tons ?  (3)  Phoenicians  ?  (4)  Saracens  and  Arabians  ?  (5)  Romans  ? 

(6)  Hebrews?     (7)  Persians?     (8)  Egyptians?     (9)  Babylonians  ? 

(10)  prehistoric  man? 

Test  No.  VII.  Mark  each  of  the  following  peoples  as  being 
Hamitic,  Semitic,  or  Aryan:  (i)  Greeks;  (2)  Egyptians;  (3)  Ro- 
mans ;  (4)  Hebrews  ;  (5)  Hindus ;  (6)  Babylonians  ;  (7)  Teutons  ; 

(8)  Assyrians;    (9)  Phoenicians;    (10)  Persians. 

1  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  scale  s^t.  Journal  of  £^ucational  Psychology, 
VIII,  284  ff. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  167 


f 

m  Test  No.  VIII.  Name  and  mark  the  geographical  locations  on 
the  accompanying  map  of  ten  points  that  you  think  were  most  im- 
portant in  ancient  history.  [Here  was  inserted  an  outline  map  of 
the  Mediterranean  World.] 

It  takes  but  little  scrutinizing  of  the  foregoing  tests  to  dis- 
cover wherein  they  fail  when  considered  in  the  light  of  the 
recent  testing  movement.  Some  serious  adverse  criticisms  of 
them  when  they  are  thought  of  as  scales  to  be  used  again  ahd 
again  are  (i)  their  usefulness  is  destroyed  if  the  teacher  and 
the  pupils  see  them  in  advance,  because  by  a  few  hours  spent 
in  drill  or  study  the  answers  to  each  test  could  be  worked  out 
and  committed;  (2)  too  much  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  test- 
ing of  the  memory;  (3)  there  is  no  certainty  that  the  facts 
called  for  are  the  most  important  ones  within  the  fields  of 
history  in  question  ;  (4)  some  of  the  tests  cannot  be  completed 
in  the  allotted  time  ;  (5)  the  facts  called  for  are  not  sufficiently 
standardized  to  make  it  possible  to  grade  the  answers  with 
enough  uniformity;  (6)  in  their  present  crude  form  they  are 
of  little  practical  value  to  history  teachers.  Their  potential 
value  seems  to  be  in  their  probable  inspirational  effect.  They 
also  serve  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  making  of  standard- 
ized tests  in  history  involves  more  labor  and  historical  acumen 
than  some  people  interested  in  the  movement  seem  to  realize. 

Since  McCollum's  effort  to  construct  tests  in  American 
history  five  other  attempts  have  been  made  in  this  field. 
American  History  Test — Series  A,'^  prepared  by  Professor 
Daniel  Starch,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  is  composed  of 
a  number  of  incomplete  historical  statements  to  be  completed 
by  the  one  taking  it.  The  entire  list  of  exercises  is  too  long 
to  reproduce  in  full.  The  directions  and  the  first  ten  of  the 
sixty-nine  items  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  test 
and  the  general  principle  underlying  it. 

1  The  other  four  are  C.  L.  Harlan,  Tesi  of  Information  in  American  History ; 
S.  B.  Davis,  Exercises  in  United  States  History,  Colonial  Period',  A.  S.  Barr, 
Diagnostic  Tests  in  American  History ;  and  M.  J.  Van  Wagenen,  American 
History  Scales. 


1 68  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

STARCH'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY  TEST- SERIES  A^ 

Fill  in  as  many  of  the  blank  spaces  as  you  can.  Read  each 
statement  through  completely  before  you  attempt  to  supply  the 
missing  parts.  Place  yourself  historically  in  each  case.  Take  as 
much  time  as  you  need. 

1.     discovered  America  in  1492. 

2.  John  Cabot,  exploring  for  the ^ in  1497, 

landed   on   the   . . coast   and   claimed   the   country   for 


3.     sailed  around  the  globe  in   1519- 

1521. 

4 discovered  the  Mississippi  River  in 

1541- 

5.  Two  expeditions  sent  out  by to  settle  Virginia, 

in  1585  and  1587  respectively,  failed. 

6.     was    governor    of    Virginia    after 

Delaware  left. 

7.     __.,  in  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 

Company,  explored  the    River  in  1609. 

8.     was  governor  of  the  Dominion  of 

New  England,  which  was  composed  of  (i)     , 

(2) '.,    and   (3)    

9.  John   Winthrop    came    to    America    in    1630    and    settled 


10.     New  Hampshire  was  founded  in 


While  Harlan  calls  his  effort  a  Test  of  Information  in  Amer- 
ican History,  it  involves  in  reality  reasoning  as  well.  Ten 
exercises  are  included  in  the  test,  two  of  which  are  concerned 
with  historical  personages,  two  with  dates-events,  one  each 
with  historic  terms,  places,  topics,  and  causes,  and  two  are 
reasoning  exercises.  The  general  principle  underlying  the  test 
as  a  whole  may  be  detected  from  the  three  exercises  which 
follow.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  completion  idea  used  by 
Starch  also  appears  here  but  in  a  some.what  easier  form. 

1  Order  from  the  author,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 


MEASURING  RESULTS 


169 


HARLAN'S  TEST  OF  INFORMATION  IN  AMERICAN  HISTORY  1 


Exercise  I 

At  the  right  of  the  page  are  the  names  of  some  men  mentioned 
in  American  History.  Fill  in  blanks  with  the  names  which  properly 
belong  there. 


Score 


1.  America     was      discovered     by 

^ near    * 

the    close    of    the    fifteenth 
century. 

2.  The  name  of  the  man  who  is     Jefferson 

supposed  to  have  discovered     Cornwallis 

the  Pacific  Ocean  is  Wm.   Penn 

Lafayette 

3.  The  first  president  of  the  United     Patrick  Henry 

States  was ♦_ Columbus 

4.     is  the      Benjamin  Franklin 

name      of     a      distinguished      Washington 
Frenchman    who    aided    the     John  Cabot 
colonists  in  securing  their  in-      Balboa 
dependence; 

5.  surren- 
dered to  the  colonial  troops 
at  Yorktown. 


Exercise  IV 

Tell  the  very  first  thing  you  would  do  under  each  of  the  follow- 
ing conditions,  also  what  you  would  do  next. 


Score 


:.  If  a  neighbor  were  to  present  to  you  for  your  signa- 
ture a  petition  to  have  some  man  removed  from 
pubhc   office, — 

What  would  you  do  first? " 

Would  you  sign  the  petition? ,_ 

^  Published  by  Northwestern  School  Supply  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 


170  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

2.  If  a  man  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  for  some 
serious  crime  should  be  taken  out  by  a  mob  with 
the  intention  of  hanging  him, — 

What  ought  to  be  done  first  ?  

Then  what?   

Exercise  VI 
Give  the  year  in  which  the  following  events  occurred, — 

Score 

1.  Discovery  of  AmericaX 1 

2.  Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 

3.  Settlement  of  Jamestown,  Va. 

4.  Settlement  of  Plymouth  Colony 

5.  First  battle  of  American  Revolution 

There  is  one  other  type  of  tests  in  American  history  to 
which  some  attention  should  be  given  before  passing  to  another 
phase  of  the  subject.  Instead  of  blanks  to  fill,  persons  to 
identify,  and  dates  to  remember  as  in  the  foregoing  tests,  this 
one  asks  the  pupil  to  underscore  the  correct  one  of  a  number 
of  given  answers.  The  first  ten  exercises  will  illustrate  the 
idea  underlying  the  tests. 

DAVIS'S  EXERCISES  IN  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY, 
COLONIAL  PERIOD 

1.  The  Mayflower  was  a  chapel,  hall,  hotel,  plant,  queen,  ship. 

2.  Miles  Standish  led  in  fighting  the  Dutch,  Indians,  Puritans, 
Swedes. 

3.  Roger  Williams  founded  the  colony  of  Ga.,  Md.,  Mass., 
N.C.,  :^i.J.,  Pa.,  R.I.,  S.C,  Va. 

4.  The  Patroons  were  Dutch  fishermen,  fur  traders,  laijd- 
owners,  miners,  preachers,  teachers. 

5.  Thomas  Hooker  led  emigrants  from  Mass.,  to  found  Conn., 
Del.,  Ga.,  Md.,  N.J.,  N.Y. 

6.  The  first  college  founded  was  Brown,  Harvard,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Princeton,  WiUiam  and  Mary,  Yale. 


rf 
-  MEASURING  RESULTS  171 

7.  The    Witchcraft    delusion    occurred    among    the    Baptists, 
Catholics,  Dutch,  Indians,  Puritans. 

8.  John  Berkeley  and  George  Cartaret  once  owned  Conn.,  Del, 
Ga.,  Md.,  Ma^gs.,  N.H.,  N.J.,  Pa. 

9.  The  principal  native  food  crop  was  barley,  corn,  oats,  pota- 
toes, rice,  rye,  wheat. 

10.  The  Mason  and  Dixon  Line  was  estabHshed  between  Pa.  and 
Del.,  Md.,  N.J.,  N.Y.,  Ohio. 

In  giving  a  correct  answer  to  the  above  the  student  would  be 
expected  to  underscore  the  word  ^^ship"  in  i,  "Indians"  in  2, 
"R.I."  in  3,  "landowners"  in  4,  "Conn."  in  5,  "Harvard"  in  6, 
"Puritans"  in  7,  "N.J."  in  8,  "corn"  in  9,  and  "Md."  in  lo.^ 

Some  of  the  same  adverse  criticisms  apply  to  the  Starch, 
Harlan,  and  Davis  tests  that  were  directed  against  those  of 
McCollum  and  Sackett.  The  chief  weaknesses  in  all  five  of 
these  tests  are :  ( i )  The  absolute  importance  of  the  information 
called  for  has  not  been  scientifically  established.  Almost  any 
number  of  tests  could  be  constructed  as  these  have  been,  all  of 
which  would  have  equal  claims  to  merit.  (2)  If  either  the 
students  or  the  teacher  see  the  tests  in  advance  of  their  ap- 
plication, their  value  disappears,  for  with  little  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  student  or  drill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  idea 
back  of  all  such  tests  would  be  wholly  upset.  (3)  The  matter 
of  grading  seems  to  present  insuperable  difficulties,  since  some 
of  the  tests  admit  of  so  many  correct  answers.^ 

1  Order  these  exercises  from  S.  B.  Davis,  University  of  Pittsburgh, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

2  While  not  a  test  in  a  sense  of  the  foregoing,  mention  should  be  made 
here  of  the  work  of  B.  R.  Buckingham  in  trying  to  determine  the  correlation 
between  the  ability  to  think  and  the  ability  to  remember.  For  the  questions 
Mr.  Buckingham  used  in  his  study  as  well  as  a  brief  report  of  the  result, 
see  School  and  Society,  V,  443  ff.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  his- 
tory tests  Buckingham  used  in  his  survey  of  the  Gary  and  prevocational 
schools  in  New  York  City  in  March  and  June,  191 5.  The  questions  used 
in  this  survey  and  the  results  as  well  may  be  found  in  "  Survey  of  the 
Gary  and  Prevocational  Schools,"  a  part  of  the  seventeenth  annual  report 
of  the  City  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1914-1915. 


172  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

It  is  one  thing  to  criticize  adversely  the  tests  in  history  now 
available  and  quite  a  different  thing  to  propose  remedies  to 
obliterate  these  objections.  The  writer  believes  that  the  latter 
undertaking  is  quite  within  the  range  of  possibilities.  To  be 
comprehensive,  standardized  tests  in  history  must  emphasize 
something  other  than  information  or  memory.  Generally 
speaking,  they  ought  to  test  what  the  student  actually  knows 
of  the  subject  as  well  as  his  ability  to  do  such  things  as 
comprehend  and  reproduce  a  coherent  historical  narrative, 
analyze  a  paragraph  or  a  page  of  history,  apply  historic  truths 
to  social  situations,  organize  a  given  collection  of  facts,  and 
recognize  in  given  facts  differing  degrees  of  probability.  Fur- 
thermore, the  student's  conception  of  time  and  place  relations,  ^ 
his  power  to  construct  from  oral  or  written  descriptions  con- 
crete pictures  of  historic  places  and  scenes — in  other  words, 
what  is  often  spoken  of  as  historical  sense  and  historical- 
mindedness — must  be  analyzed  with  great  care,  and  tests 
must  be  constructed  on  the  basis  of  the  information  attained. 

In  reality  the  first  step  in  the  construction  of  adequate  and 
comprehensive  tests  in  history  has  never  been  taken  by  any  of 
the  investigators  to  date.  This  step  is  scientifically  to  deter- 
mine the  particularized  objectives  of  history  teaching  in  each 
unit  of  instruction  in  the  subject.  After  this  task  has  been 
performed  so  that  it  will  successfully  withstand  a  reasonable 
number  of  legitimate  tests,  the  matter  of  measuring  the  success 
of  a  teacher  in  arriving  at  the  predetermined  objectives  will 
be  one  of  small  dimensions.  Of  course  if  the  objectives  should 
include  a  specific  quantity  of  knowledge  of  the  subject,  as 
they  no  doubt  would,  then  the  matter  of  determining  what  is 
worth  remembering  in  each  unit  or  field  of  history  would  have 
to  be  settled,  which  in  itself  would  involve  an  immense  amount 
of  labor.  For  example,  the  investigator  in  determining  the 
facts  of  most  value  in  United  States  history  would  have  to  get 
at  the  matter  from  a  number  of  angles,  the  chief  ones  being : 
(i)   analyze  the  current  textbooks'  in  the  field  in  order  to 


r 


MEASURING  RESULTS  173 


determine  the  dates-events,  personages,  and  other  facts  of 
most  importance  according  to  their  authors;  (2)  examine 
current  literature  in  order  to  learn  what  historical  background 
the  reader  would  need  to  peruse  it  understanding^ ;  (3)  ask 
persons  in  business  and  professional  life  the  facts  of  history 
which  most  often  come  into  their  lives  as  they  go  about  their 
daily  work ;  (4)  submit  to  be  arranged  in  the  order  of 
importance  tentative  lists  of  events  and  personages  and 
similar  material  to  trained  historians  and  to  experienced 
teachers  of  history  in  all  schools  above  and  including  the 
junior  high;  (5)  examine  a  large  number  of  students  just 
completing  the  study  of  United  States  history  in  either  the 
grades  or  the  high  school  in  order  to  find  out  what  facts  have 
been  most  emphasized  by  their  teachers.  By  throwing  together 
the  results  of  comprehensive  studies  along  all  of  these  lines, 
an  investigator  would  be  able  to  construct  an  information  test 
in  history  with  some  semblance  of  finality  and  permanent 
value. 

In  order  to  meet  one  of  the  very  vital  objections  to  the 
information  tests  now  in  the  field,  namely,  that*  they  may 
prove  useless  if  the  student  or  teacher  sees  them  in  advance,  a 
test  resulting  from  the  foregoing  studies  would  need  to  be 
either  so  long  that  it  could  not  be  administered,  or  constructed 
in  such  a  way  that  selections  could  be  made  from  it.  For 
example,  suppose  the  list  of  important  things  in  United  States 
history  should  turn  out  to  contain  1000  items,  a  test  could  be 
constructed  by  selecting  a  certain  number  of  them.  One  could 
not  prepare  specifically  for  such  a  test,  for  one  would  never 
know  just  what  items  it  would  include.  Of  course,  one  could 
prepare  for  it  in  a  general  way  by  familiarizing  himself  with 
each  item  on  the  complete  list,  which  would  be  entirely  legiti- 
mate, inasmuch  as  one  of  the  legitimate  objectives  in  any  study 
is  a  knowledge  of  the  important  facts  therein. 

Neither  the  preliminary  work  relative  to  nor  the  actual  con- 
struction and  the  administering  of  tests  in  history  other  than 


174  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

those  of  the  strictly  informational  type  seem  so  formidable 
as  does  the  procedure  outlined  above.  For  example,  suppose 
one  desires  to  test  the  student's  ability  to  comprehend  a  coher- 
ent historical  narrative  or  his  power  along  the  line  of  construc- 
tive imagination,  reasoning,  discrimination,  applying  historic 
truths  to  social  situations,  and  the  like,  it  does  not  seem  im- 
possible to  formulate  adequate  tests  of  these  abilities  and 
powers.  The  chief  difficulty  one  would  encounter  in  construct- 
ing tests  of  this  character  would  be  to  make  them  something 
besides  the  ordinary  general  ability  or  reading  tests.  The  mere 
use  of  historical  data,  might  not  satisfy  the  psychologist  that 
mainly  historical  abilities  and  powers  were  tested.  In  spite  of 
this  difficulty,  however,  the  construction  of  history  tests  of  this 
nature  seems  to  be  both  a  virgin  and  a  fertile  field  for  investi- 
gation by  those  interested  in  the  measurement  movement.^ 

The  diagnostic  value  of  the  kind  of  a  test  anticipated  above, 
if  scientifically  constructed,  seems  never  to  have  been  realized 
by  history  teachers.  Suppose  adequate  tests  were  in  existence 
to  determine  the  abilities  and  powers,  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going paragraph,  of  all  the  beginners  in  high-school  history. 
These  would  be  of  great  value,  if  wisely  administered,  in  classi- 
fying the  students  on  the  basis  of  their  historical  abilities  and 
powers.  If  some  were  weak  in  constructive  imagination,  they 
could  be  given  special  training  along  this  line,  and  likewise  with 
weaknesses  which  such  tests  would  reveal  in  other  historical 
abilities  and  mental  powers. 

1  Some  tests  which  are  more  than  informational  in  character  are  Diag- 
nostic Tests  in  American  History,  arranged  by  A.  S.  Barr,  and  America7i 
History  Scales  by  M.  J.  Van  Wagenen.  The  former  can  be  secured  from 
James  Watson  and  Co.,  6i8  Sherman  St.,  Chicago,  111.,  and  the  latter  from 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  These  tests  did  not 
appear  in  time  to  receive  the  critical  consideration  that  was  given  the 
others.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  Barr  is  attempting  to  test  compre. 
hension,  chronological  judgment,  historical  evidence,  evaluation  of  facts, 
and  causal  relationships  (inference).  While  he  do.es  not  attempt  to  wholly 
eliminate  the  informational  factors,  his  tests  deal  primarily  with  powers 
(abilities)  involved  in  the  baring  process  of  history. 


r 


MEASURING  RESULTS  175 


ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 


Bell  and  McCollum.  "A  Study  of  Attainments  of  Pupils  in  United 
States  History,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  VIII  (1916), 

257  ff. 

Buckingham,  B,  R.  "Correlation  between  Ability  to  Think  and  Ability 
to  Remember,  with  Special  Reference  to  United  States  History," 
School  and  Society,  V  (1917),  443  ff- 

Gathany,  J.  M.  "The  Giving  of  History  Examinations,"  Education, 
XXXIV  (1914),  Si4ff. 

Johnson,  Henry.  "The  History  Examination,"  chap,  xvi  in  The  Teach- 
ing of  History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools.  The  Macmillan 
Company,  1915. 

Osgood,  Ellen  L.  "Some  Experiments  in  a  New  Type  of  History 
Examination,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  IX  (1918),  337  ff- 

Sackett,  L.  W.  "A  Scale  in  Ancient  History,"  The  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  VIII  (1916),  284  ff. 

Van  Wagenen,  M.  J.  Historical  Information  and  Judgment  in  Pupils 
of  Elementary  Schools.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1919. 


(ol 


/ 


CHAPTER  IX 

LIBRARY  AND   COLLATERAL-READING   PROBLEMS 

With  the  coming  of  the  topical  and  other  modern  methods 
of  teaching  high-school  history  there  arose  a  need  for  material 
in  addition  to  that  which  the  text  contained.  Accompanying 
this  necessity  were  such  major  problems  as  the  valid  aims  and 
purposes  of  collateral  reading,  the  selection  of  suitable  reading 
matter,  and  the  technic  of  effective  management.  Some  of 
the  minor  problems  were  the  kinds  of  reading  most  suitable, 
the  kinds  required  and  kinds  optional,  the  quantity  of  reading, 
how  to  assign  and  how  to  check,  and  the  guiding  principles 
for  selecting  a  high-school  history  library.  This  chapter  is 
devoted  to  a  consideration  of  these  major  and  minor  problems. 

r 

Valid  Aims  or  Purposes  of  Collateral  Reading 

Two  valid  objectives  in  good  history  teaching  which  require 
the  use  of  collateral  reading  for  their  attainment  are  to 
create  a  life  interest  in  the  subject  of  history  and  to  establish 
a  permanent  taste  for  substantial  historical  reading.  Neither 
of  these  objectives  can  be  successfully  attained  if  the  teacher 
has  no  books  other  than  the  text.  In  truth,  wherever  such  a 
scarcity  of  material  exists  there  is  great  danger  of  creating  an 
aversion  for,  rather  than  a  life  interest  in,  the  subject  of  history. 
Unless  the  teacher  has  a  variety  of  types  of  material  he  cannot 
appeal  to  the  individuality  of  the  different  members  of  the 
class.  This  type  of  appeal  is  essential  in  creating  life  interests 
and  permanent  tastes,  both  of  which  become  of  vast  importance 
when  thought  of  in  connection  with  the  quantity  and  kind 
of  reading  done  during  life's  leisure  hours.    Since  so  many  of 

176 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  177 

these  hours  are  spent  in  reading  history,  it  becomes  a  very 
practical  problem  to  teach  history  in  such  a  way  that  the 
teacher  is  able  to  direct  in  a  measure  the  reading  of  his 
pupils  after  they  leave  his  classes.  To  do  this,  of  course, 
will  require  much  care  in  selecting  and  much  ingenuity  in 
managing  collateral  reading. 

To^reate^a  critical  attitude  and  to  stimulate  independent  •/ 
judgment  are  other  worthy  aims  which  cannot  be  successfully  ' 
accomplished  without  some  use  of  collateral  reading,  because 
the  student  has  too  meager  a  basis  for  a  critical  attitude  and 
an  independent  judgment  concerning  a  historical  event  when 
he  has  access  to  but  one  account  of  it.  Frequent  occasions  to 
read  and  compare  different  narratives  give  the  pupil  oppor- 
tunities for  cultivating  a  critical  attitude  and  for  forming 
independent  judgments.  Inasmuch  as  the  attainment  of  these 
two  objectives  will  be  of  practical  value  to  the  student  in  the 
reading  that  he  does  when  his  school  days  are  over,  they 
should  be  constantly  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  when  he 
selects  and  assigns  the  collateral  reading  to  be  done  in  con- 
nection with  each  course. 

To  teach  those  in  his  classes  how  to  use  books  and  to  give 
them  directed  practice  in  the  application  of  this  knowledge  ) 
are  two  of  the  greatest  opportunities  of  a  history  teacher. 
In  a  democracy  like  our  own  where  each  individual  has  so 
many  opportunities  for  independent  thinking  and  reading,  there 
is  particular  need  of  training  in  the  use  of  some  of  the  most 
fundamental  tools  of  education  whether  in  school  or  out  of 
school.  It  is  a  highly  desirable  accomplishment  to  be  able  to 
get  with  minimum'  effort  from  a  number  of  books  all  they 
contain  on  a  definite  point.  There  is  no  other  subject  in  the 
curriculum  which  offers  such  a  profusion  of  occasions  for  train- 
ing along  this  line.  Other  subjects  may  give  the  student  many 
rules  and  regulations.,  on  the  use  of  books,  but  it  is  in  the 
well-taught  history  courses  that  he  has  the  opportunities  for 
putting  into  practice  his  knowledge  of  how  to  read  effectively. 


178  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  training  in  the  use  of  books  cannot  be 
given  when  the  pupil  has  access  to  but  one  volume  in  his 
history  work.  Herein  lies  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  for 
a  high-school  history  library. 

Another  objective  of  collateral  reading  is  to  acquaint  the 
pupils  with  the  diverse  forms  in  which  historicaLjnai£rials, 
are  recorded.  To  secure  this  acquaintance  the  student  should 
have  access  to  the  following  types  of  material :  fuller  narrative 
accounts  than  the  one  his  text  contains,  biography,  letters  and 
diaries,  books  of  travel,  reminiscences,  historical  novels,  mem- 
oirs, chronicles,  legends,  stories,  myths,  and  fairy  tales,  news- 
papers, and  magazines.  In  his  contact  with  each  of  these 
forms  the  student  will  learn  the  features  common  to  two  or 
more  of  them  as  well  as  the  attributes  peculiar  to  each.  This 
training  will  be  of  direct  value  to  him  in  selecting,  character- 
izing, classifying,  evaluating,  and  criticizing  the  historical  mate- 
rial which  he  reads  after  school  hours. 

To  attain  the  foregoing  worth-while  ends  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  students  to  do  certain  things  during  their  journey 
through  the  history  course.  Chief  among  these  are:  consult 
books  of  history  other  than  the  text ;  consult  some  of  them 
while  preparing  daily  lessons ;  work  up  some  topics  quite 
thoroughly  and  do  a  little  constructive  work ;  read  some  his- 
torical fiction  and  much  current  history ;  and  come  in 
contact  with  the  manifold  forms  in  which  historical  materials 
are  recorded.  Unless  a  student  meets  a  portion  or  all  of 
these  specific  requirements  during  his  career  in  high-school  his- 
tory, he  will  miss  some  of  the  most  practical  and  fundamental 
training  which  the  proper  study  of  the  subject  has  to  offer. 

Before  passing  to  some  other  problems  relative  to  collateral 
reading  it  will  be  worth  our  while  to  consider  some  of  the 
so-called  valid  objections  to  it.  It  is  often  said  that  in  actual 
practice  the  teacher  instead  of  developing  a  love  for  historical 
literature  turns  out  students  with  an  aversion  to  it.  They  are 
sick  and  tired  of  history,  hence  do  not  care  to  have  any  more  to 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  179 

do  with  it.  The  trouble  here  is  not  so  much  in  collateral  read- 
ing per  se  as  in  the  kind  selected  and  required.  The  following 
story  illustrates  this  point : 

A  young  man  from  the  country,  who  had  become  a  clerk  in  a 
mercantile  house  in  the  city,  was  desirous  of  improving  his  mind 
and  he  wisely  thought  he  could  do  it  by  reading  history.  But  he  did 
not  know  what  books  to  read.  He  therefore  asked  the  advice 
of  an  intelligent,  educated  lawyer.  The  gentleman  was  greatly  in- 
terested in  the  young  man,  asked  him  to  call  again,  and  promised  to 
make  out  for  him  a  course  of  historical  reading.  Thanking  the 
lawyer  he  retired,  and  after  a  lapse  of  a  few  days  he  called  at  the 
office  for  the  list.  The  learned  man  drew  out  from  a  desk  drawer 
a  sheet  of  paper,  on  which  he  had  written  a  list  of  historical  works 
which  he  recommended  the  young  man  to  read.  The  list  included 
the  following : 

Thucydides,  Herodotus,  Plutarch's  Lives,  RoUin's  Ancient  His- 
tory, Grote's  Greece,  Gibbon's  Rome,  Hume's  England,  Macaulay's 
England,  Guizot's  History,  Motley's  Dutch  Republic,  Bancroft's 
United  States,  Hildreth's  United  States,  Palfrey's  New  England, 
MacMaster's  American  People. 

The  young  man  thanked  his  friend,  took  his  list,  and,  on  his  way 
to  his  boarding  place,  stopped  at  the  bookstore  and  bought  a  set 
of  Rollin's  Ancient  History.  He  never  succeeded  in  reading  a  single 
column  of  the  work.  He  now  has  a  large  and  well-selected  library, 
but  Rollin  is  stored  away  in  the  attic.^ 

The  lawyer  in  this  case  made  the  mistake  that  many  well- 
meaning  history  teachers  make,  namely,  that  of  giving  an  over- 
whelming list  to  begin  with  and  of  suggesting  material  not 
adapted  to  the  reader.  The  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the 
collateral-reading  work  are  the  controlling  ideals  of  too  many 
history  teachers.  Could  anyone  blame  the  young  man  for  not 
reading  Rollin's  Ancient  History  1  Is  there  any  wonder  that 
high-school  pupils  often  leave  the  history  classes  with  a  feeling 
of  never-any-more-history-for-me  when  they  are  required  to 

1  Mowry,  "  The  Teaching" of  History,"  American  Education^  XVH,  145. 


i8o  THE  TEACfflNG  OF  HISTORY 

read  a  huge  quantity  of  material  far  beyond  their  capacity  to 
comprehend  and  to  enjoy  ? 

Other  so-called  valid  objections  to  collateral  reading  in  his- 
tory, especially  as  it  is  sometimes  administered,  are  (i)  but 
one  student  comes  in  contact  with  the  ideas  in  any  particular 
assignment ;  (2)  students  fail  to  absorb  what  they  read  ;  (3)  so 
much  time  is  consumed  in  taking  notes  on  the  reading  that 
other  valuable  work  must  be  neglected ;  (4)  the  supplementary 
reading  has  no  direct  bearing  on  the  lesson  of  the  day ;  and 
(5)  no  adequate  test  for  such  work  has  ever  been  devised. 
Since  all  of  thes-e  objections  relate  to  the  problem  of  how  best 
to  manage  collateral  reading,  which  is  discussed  in  the  last 
section  of  this  chapter,  no  further  consideration  need  be  given 
them  here. 

Some  Guiding  Principles  for  selecting  Collateral- 
Reading  Material 

Suppose  the  teacher  has  decided  upon  the  main  ends  to  be 
attained  through  a  proper  use  of  collateral  reading  and  has 
tabulated  the  objections,  the  problem  now  uppermost  in  his 
mind  should  be  how  to  select  material  to  accomplish  the 
purposes  and  meet  the  objections.  Teachers  often  face  this 
problem  in  a  very  practical  way  when  asked  to  make  additions 
to  an  already  moderately  well-equipped  historical  library  or, 
a  more  difficult  task,  to  select  books  for  a  new  one.  Great 
responsibility  accompanies  either  of  these  requests.  To  do  this 
work  effectively  the  history  teacher  must  decide  upon  some  well- 
defined  standard  of  selection.  When  he  has  decided  upon  this, 
the  remainder  of  the  work  will  be  merely  a  matter  of  application. 

The  principles  that  the  teacher  will  need  to  apply  in  selecting 
suitable  collateral-reading  material  are  both  general  and  special. 
Some  safe  general  standards  to  apply  to  each  book  are  that  the 
style  must  be  both  intelligent  and  interesting  to  the  adolescent 
mind  and  that  the  book  must  be  scholarly  and  bear  directly 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  i8i 

upon  some  phase  of  history  work ;  it  should  also  be  somewhat 
inexpensive  and  nontechnical.  The  special  guiding  principles 
which  the  teacher  might  apply  are  (i)  select  a  list  of  topics 
in  each  field  of  history  taught  in  the  high  school,  then  let  this 
list  determine  the  collateral  reading  ;  ( 2 )  select  material  on  the 
basis  of  the  use  to  be  made  of  it;  (3)  select  wholly  on  the 
basis  of  the  types  of  books  ;  and  (4)  select  the  few  best  books  in 
each  field  with  the  idea  of  duplicating  them  to  such  an  extent 
that  each  book  will  be  accessible  to  and  used  by  the  class  as 
a  whole.  A  brief  discussion  and  a  few  examples  of  these 
principles  will  make  them  clear. 

Selecting  the  big  topics  in  any  field  of  history  and  permitting 
them  to  determine  in  most  part  the  books  for  collateral 
reading  is  a  method  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  It  finds 
its  parallel  in  physics,  where  there  is  almost  uniform  agreement 
as  to  the  experiments  to  be  performed  in  a  high-school  course, 
hence  there  arises  equal  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  laboratory 
equipment  necessary  to  perform  these  experiments.  Now,  if 
an  agreement  could  be  reached  as  to  the  big  topics  in  each 
field  of  high-school  history,  there  would  be  some  basis  for 
uniformity  in  the  matter  of  library  equipment,  a  condition 
worth  striving  for,  since  history  teachers  as  a  rule  change 
their  positions  all  too  frequently  and  must  therefore  learn  to. 
use  a  new  set  of  reference  books  with  each  new  position.^ 

Should  the  history  teacher  decide  to  select  material  for  col- 
lateral reading  on  the  basis  of  the  use  to  be  made  of  it,  he  could 
accept  Professor  Johnson's  types  of  material  and  look  for 
books  embodying  them.  In  doing  this  he  would  look  for 
( I )  materials  to  add  elements  of  reality  ;  ( 2 )  materials  to  add 
information  as  information;  (3)  materials  to  make  history 
interesting  and  inspiring ;  (4)  materials  to  give  acquaintance 
with  historical  literature;  and  (5)  materials  to  illustrate  the 

^  For  a  list  of  references  in  the  field  of  ancient  history  selected  accord- 
ing to  this  principle,  see  Dickerson  and  others,  Library  Equipment  for 
Teaching  History  in  Mintiesota  High  Schools,  pp.  15  ff. 


1 82  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

historical  methods  of  study/  Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
use,  the  first  type  of  material  would  be  read  for  impressions  and 
atmosphere.  No  notes  would  be  taken  on  it  and  no  effort 
would  be  made  to  remember  it.  The  use  of  the  second  type  is 
suggested  by  the  word  "information."  This  material  would 
become  an  integral  part  of  the  daily  work  and  be  treated  as 
the  textbook  is  treated ;  it  would  be  outlined,  placed  in  the 
notebook,  and  learned  and  recited  just  as  the  textbook  is. 
The  difficult  task  here  is  to  find  material  that  is  adapted  to  the 
capacities  of  high-school  students,  for  most  of  the  informational 
material  in  its  present  form  is  on  the  college  level. 

Professor  Johnson  would  have  the  last  three  of  his  types  of 
material  utilized  as  follows :  that  used  primarily  to  make  his- 
tory interesting  should  be  treated  merely  as  good  reading; 
that  used  primarily  to  acquaint  the  student  with  historical 
literature  should  be  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize 
the  record  and  the  recorder  rather  than  what  is  recorded ; 
and  that  used  primarily  to  illustrate  the  historical  method 
should  be  treated  as  material  for  written  work  to  be  handed 
in  or  for  oral  discussion  in  class.  To  acquire  a  working 
knowledge  of  how  to  use  each  of  Professor  Johnson's  types 
of  collateral-reading  material,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  read  his  somewhat  elaborate  discussion  of  them. 

A  library  selected  on  the  basis  of  the  third  special  principle 
mentioned  above  would  contain  the  following  types  of  books : 
( I )  parallel  texts ;  ( 2 )  one- volume  narratives  with  a  fuller 
account  than  the  text ;  (3)  books  dealing  with  a  definite  period, 
topic,  or  movement ;  (4)  biography,  collective  and  individual ; 
( 5 )  books  treating  social,  industrial,  and  economic  life ;  ( 6 )  con- 
stitutional, political,  and  diplomatic  discussions  ;  (7)  collections 
of  documents  and  sources  of  a  varied  nature;  (8)  reminis- 
cences, travel,  diaries,  letters,  and  similar  records  of  everyday 
life;  (9)  atlases,  abstracts,  and  similar  material;  (10)  his- 
torical  fiction  and  poetry.     It   is  quite-  possible,   of  course, 

^  Teachmg  of  History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools,  p,  330. 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  183 

that  one  might  have  each  of  these  types  in  a  library  selected 
according  to  the  second  special  principle  mentioned  above; 
for  practical  purposes,  however,  the  principle  of  selection  under 
discussion  here  seems  to  have  some  advantages  over  both  of 
the  first  two.  In  the  first  place,  the  names  of  the  types  are 
in  terms  of  existing  books;  that  is,  one  can  actually  find  a 
number  of  books  in  each  field  of  high-school  history  which  can 
be  readily  classified  under  each  of  the  foregoing  types.  In 
the  second  place,  as  a  library-standardizing  agency  this  prin- 
ciple seems  superior  to  the  first  two,  for  with  each  of  the 
types  well  in  mind  a  teacher  could  in  a  short  time  survey  his 
high-school  history  library  and  find  out  wherein  it  was  short 
on  some  types  and  long  on  others ;  or  in  making  out  a  list  of 
books  for  a  new  history  library  a  teacher  by  means  of  such  a 
scheme  could  make  sure  that  he  was  covering  the  field  and 
at  the  same  time  selecting  books  in  some  definite  proportion. 
In  order  to  show  how  this  third  principle  works  out  in  the 
field  of  American  history  the  types  are  repeated  below  with 
from  two  to  four  examples  under  each. 

A  SMALL  CLASSIFIED  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  IN 
AMERICAN  HISTORY 

I.  Parallel  Texts. 

1.  FoRMAN.    Advanced  American  History.    The  Century  Co., 

1914. 

2.  McLaughlin.    A    History    of    the    American    Nation. 

D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1913. 

3.  Montgomery.       Student's     American    History     (Second 

Revised   Edition).     Ginn  and  Company,    19 16. 

4.  MuzzEY.    An  American  History  (Revised  Edition).    Ginn 

and  Company,  1920. 
II.  One-Volume  Narratives  with  a  Fuller  Account  than 
THE  Text. 
I.  Bassett.    a   Short   History   of   the   United  States.    The^ 
Macmillan  Company,  19 13. 


i84  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

2.  Elson.    History   of   the    United  States.    The    Macmillan 
Company,  1904. 

III.  Books  treating  a  Definite  Period,  Topic,  or  Movement. 
I.  Hitchcock.     The  Louisiana  Purchase   and   the  Explora- 
tion, Early  History,  and  Building  of  the  West.    Ginn 
and  Company,  1903. 

2.  Tryon.     Household  Manufactures  in  the  United  States. 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  191 7. 

3.  Brigham.    Geographic   Influences   in   American   History. 

Ginn  and  Company,  1903. 

IV.  Biography,  Collective  and  Individual. 

1.  Morris.    Heroes  of  Progress  in  America.    J.  B.  Lippin^ 

cott  Company,  1906. 

2.  Mace.   Lincoln,  the  Man  of  the  People.   Rand,  McNally 

&  Company,  19 13. 
V.  Books  treating  Social,  Industrial,  and  Economic  Life. 

1.  Hunt.    Life  in  America  100  years  ago  {18 15).   Harper  & 

Brothers,  19 14. 

2.  Callender.   Selections   from    the   Economic   History    of 

the  United  States.    Ginn  and  Company,  1909. 

3.  Moore.   An  Industrial  History    of  the  American  People. 

The  Macmillan  Company,  19 13. 
VI.  Constitutional,  Political,  and  Diplomatic  Discussions. 

1.  Fess.    History  of  Political  Theory  and  Party  Organization 

in   the    United  States.    Ginn   and   Company,    19 10. 

2.  Foster.    A  Century  of  American  Diplomacy.    Houghton 

Mifflin  Company,  1900. 

3.  McKee.     National    Conventions   and   Platforms    of   All 

Political  Parties,  i78g-igo4.  Friedenwald  &  Co.,  1904. 
VII.  Collections  of  Documents  and  Sources  of  a  Similar 
Nature. 

1.  Muzzey.   Readings  in  American  History.    Ginn  and  Com- 

pany, 19 1 5. 

2.  MacDonald,     Documentary  Source   Book   of  American 

History.    The  Macmillan  Company,  1908. 
VIII.  Reminiscences,   Travel,   Diaries,  Letters,   and   Similar 
Records  of  Contemporary  Life  and  Manners. 
I.  Burnaby.    Travels  in  America,   Wessels,   1904. 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  185 

2.  HowELLS.     Recollections    of    Life    in    Ohio,    1814-1840. 

R.  Clarke  &  Co.,  1895. 

3.  Chestnut.   Diary  from  Dixie.    D.   Appleton  and  Com- 

pany,  1905. 

4.  Crevecceur.    Letters  from  an  American  Farmer.    E.  P. 

Button  &  Company  (Everyman's  Library). 
IX.  Atlases,  Abstracts,  and  Similar  Material. 

1.  Groscup.     Synchronic   Chart  of   United  States  History. 

Windsor  Pub.  Co.,  191 2. 

2.  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States.    Published  annu- 

ally.    Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor,  Washington. 
X.  Historical  Fiction  and  Poetry. 

1.  Austin.    Standish  of  Standish.    Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 

pany,  1890.     ("A  tale  of  the  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth 
Colony  in  the  17th  Century.") 

2.  Broadhurst  and  Rhodes  (compilers).  Verse  for  Patriots, 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,   19 19. 

The  fourth  special  criterion  which  a  teacher  might  use  in 
selecting  collateral-reading  material  is  limiting  in  its  nature. 
In  fact,  the  matter  selected  with  it  as  a  guide  might  be  prac- 
tically the  same  as  that  included  under  Professor  Johnson's 
material  to  add  information  as  information.  However,  in  the 
actual  selection  of  the  ten  or  twelve  best  reference  books  for 
any  particular  history  course  the  principle  need  not  be  so 
narrowly  interpreted  as  to  give  but  one  kind,  of  material.  In 
truth,  the  ten  or  twelve  books  might  include  one  or  more  of 
each  of  the  ten  types  mentioned  under  principle  three  above. 
Such  an  application  of  the  principle  would  provide  a  more 
valuable  working  library  than  would  be  secured  if  all 
of  the  books  were  those  of  the  strictly  informational  type. 
The  varied  kinds  of  material  that  might  be  included  in  a 
library  selected  according  to  the  principle  under  discussion  is 
illustrated  in  the  following  twelve  books  in  European  history 
since  1648. 


i86  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

A  TWELVE-BOOK  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  IN  EUROPEAN 
HISTORY  SINCE  1648 

1.  Robinson   and   Beard.     Development   of  Modern  Europe, 
Vol.  II.    Ginn  and  Company,  1918. 

2.  Hayes.   A  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe, 
Vol.  II.    The  Macmillan  Company,  191 6. 

3.  Usher.    The  Story  of  the  Great  War.   The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1919. 

4.  Hazen.    Fifty    Years   of  Europe.    Henry   Holt   and   Com- 
pany,  1919. 

5.  Gibbons.    The  New  Map  of  Europe  (4th  ed.).    The  Century 
Co.,  1915. 

6.  Herrick.     History  of  Commerce  and  Industry.    The  Mac- 
millan Company,   191 7. 

7.  Lowell.     The  Eve   of   the  French   Revolution.    Houghton 
Mififlin  Company,  1892. 

8.  Webster.    General  History  of  Commerce.    Ginn  and  Com- 
pany, 19 18. 

9.  Ogg.      Economic   Development    of   Modern   Europe.      The 
Macmillan  Company,  191 7. 

10.  ScHAPiRO.  Modern  and  Contemporary  European  History. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  19 18. 

11.  Seignobos.  History  of  Contemporary  Civilization.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  1909. 

12.  Robinson.  Readings  in  European  History,  Vol.  II.  Ginn 
and  Company,  1906. 

The  idea  back  of  a  small  library  such  as  the  one  made  up 
of  the  twelve  books  listed  above  is  that  each  volume  in  it  is 
selected  with  such  great  care  that  it  can  he  duplicated  with 
profit.  If  each  book  in  the  list  were  duplicated  to  the  extent 
of  one  volume  to  each  four  or  five  history  students,  all  of 
them  would  be  accessible  to  the  major  portion  of  a  class. 
At  any  rate  they  could  be  rather  well  known  by  the  different 
members  of  the  class  on  completing  the  course,  because  of  the 
abundant  opportunities  for  using  them.     There  may  not  be 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  187 

twelve  books  in  each  field  of  high-school  history  worth  du- 
plicating. Those  given  above  are  presented  more  as  an  example 
of  the  principle  under  discussion  than  as  volumes  truly  worth 
duplicating  in  a  high-school  library  in  modern  European  history. 
An  almost  ideal  scheme  would  seem  to  be  to  have  a  library 
made  up  on  the  basis  of  principles  three  and  four.  In  build- 
ing a  new  history  library  it  would  seem  well  to  begin  with  the 
ten  or  twelve  best  books  in  the  various  fields  of  high-school 
history.  After  these  had  been  duplicated  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  could  actually  be  used  every  day,  it  would  be  time 
to  enlarge  the  basis  of  selection  and  secure  representatives  of 
each  type  mentioned  under  principle  three.  After  beginning 
on  this  basis  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  add  certain  books 
from  year  to  year,  keeping  the  various  types  in  a  justifiable 
proportion.  This  would  avoid  overloading  a  library  with 
material  of  one  kind  at  the  expense  of  other  valuable  types. 

Management  of  Collateral  Reading 

To  some  history  teachers  efficient  management  of  collateral 
reading  is  no  problem,  because  they  have  no  material  other 
than  that  the  text  contains  on  which  to  base  their  work.  To 
those  teachers,  however,  who  do  have  ample  library  facilities 
at  their  command,  how  to  use  and  manage  these  facilities  in 
order  to  secure  maximum  results  is  a  practical  problem  which 
seems  to  have  been  satisfactorily  solved.  In  fact,  the  main 
problem  breaks  itself  up  into  at  least  four  minor  ones :  ( i )  the 
kinds  of  collateral  reading  to  be  required  and  the  kinds  to 
be  optional ;  ( 2 )  the  amount  to  be  required  in  each  course  in 
history;  (3)  how  the  reading  is  to  be  assigned;  and  (4)  how 
it  is  to  be  tested.  Any  serious  attempt  to  use  collateral  reading 
in  connection  with  history  work  will  have  to  concern  itself  with 
all  four  of  these  problems ;  and  some  decision  relative  to  each 
of  them  will  have  to  be  made  before  any  effective  work  in 
collateral  reading  can  be  done. 


1 88  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

The  kinds  of  collateral  reading  are  too  frequently  determined 
by  a  library  selected  without  much  thought  or  due  considera- 
tion of  the  existing  different  types  of  books  or  materials.  In 
all  such  cases  the  practical  thing  for  the  history  teacher  to  do 
is  to  classify  very  closely  the  available  material  and  to  deter- 
mine wherein  his  present  equipment  is  lacking.  When  he  has 
done  this,  new  purchases  can  be  made  on  the  basis  of  these 
findings.  It  is  quite  obvious  that  a  requirement  of  a  certain 
kind  of  material  from  the  whole  class  must  not  precede  the 
acquisition  of  an  ample  supply  of  this  required  reading.  Grant- 
ing, however,  that  all  problems  of  this  nature  have  been  solved, 
the  questions  as  to  what  readings  are  to  be  required  of  all 
mem,bers  of  the  class  and  what  ones  are  to  be  optional  still 
remain.  Generally  speaking,  the  material  contained  in  the 
twelve-book  library  mentioned  above  should  be  required ;  not 
all  of  it  by  any  means,  but  certainly  enough  to  make  the  daily 
work  meaningful  and  concrete.  Inasmuch  as  many  of  the 
books  in  this  library  are  used  throughout  the  course  and  are 
to  be  supplied  in  duplicate,  this  does  not  appear  to  be  an 
excessive  demand.  With  one  exception,  all  other  kinds  of  read- 
ing had  probably  better  be  optional.  The  exception  in  mind 
here  is  the  reading  of  .historical  fiction  and  similar  material. 
While  reading  of  this  type  can  be  optional,  there  will,  however,, 
have  to  be  some  requirements  regarding  it  if  uniform  results 
are  obtained.  These  requirements  can  be  made  in  terms  of  a 
definite  number  of  books  to  be  read  each  semester,  permitting 
each  student  to  select  the  ones  he  reads  from  a  list  compiled  by 
the  teacher.  In  administering  this  phase  of  the  work  it  will 
be  well  to  cooperate  with  the  English  department  if  at  all 
possible.  There  seems  to  be  no  valid  reason  why  a  student 
should  not  receive  credit  in  history  for  reading  he  does  in 
English  and  vice  versa.  The  arrangements  in  such  a  co- 
operative scheme  could  extend  to  the  checking ;  that  is,  the 
history  department  accepting  the  grades,  of  the  English  depart- 
ment and  the  English  department  accepting  the  grades  of  the 
history  department  on  all  this  work. 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS 


189 


There  seems  to  be  no  general  agreement  among  history 
teachers  as  to  the  quantity  of  collateral  reading  to  require  of 
each  history  class.  In  fact,  the  quantity  of  reading  actually 
required  varies  between  wide  extremes.  Conditions  relative 
to  this  matter  in  the  North  Central  Association  high  schools  in 
191 5  are  shown  in  Table  III. 

TABLE    III.    APPROXIMATE    QUANTITY    OF    COLLATERAL 
READING  IN  PAGES  PER  SEMESTER! 


Number  of  Pages 


25 

50 

75 

100 

120 

150 

180 

200 

2  50  .    , 

300 

350 

400 

450 

500 

60c 

700 

750 

800 

900 

1,000 

1,500 

1,800 

3'5oo 

Not  answering 

Answers  in  terms  not  usable 


Total  responses  to  questionnaire 


Number  of  Schools  Reporting  for 


Ancient 
History 


Medieval  and 
Modem  History 


52 


English 
History 


17 


American 
History 


104 


1  Koos,  The  Administration  of  Secondary- School  Ujtits,  p.  loi. 


190  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Because  of  the  wide  variation  in  the  matter  of  collateral- 
reading  requirements  which  Table  III  reveals,  it  certainly 
behooves  someone,  for  the  sake  of  both  the  pupils  and  the 
subject,  history,  to  attempt  to  bring  a  little  order  out  of  the 
existing  chaos.  The  North  Central  Association  itself  has 
attempted  to  control  this  situation  by  specifying  the  minimum 
number  of  pages  to  be  required  in  connection  with  each  of  the 
four  traditional  fields  of  high-school  history.  These  suggestions 
are:  ancient  history,  200  pages;  medieval  and  modern,  150 
pages;  English,  300  pages;  and  American,  350  pages.  The 
median  requirements  each  semester  as  reported  in  Dr.  Koos's 
study  were:  ancient,  250  pages;  medieval  and  modern,  250 
pages;  English,  275  pages;  and  American,  350  pages.  It 
will  be  observed  on  comparing  these  two  sets  of  figures  that 
the  teachers  represented  in  Table  III  required  more  than  twice 
as  much  collateral  reading  in  each  field  as  the  North  Central 
Association  specifies. 

All  of  the  available  data  on  the  quantity  of  collateral  read- 
ing which  teachers  are  actually  requiring  in  connection  with 
each  course  in  high-school  history  indicate  very  clearly  the 
undesirability  as  well  as  the  impracticability  of  stating  these 
requirements  in  terms  of  pages.  The  practical  thing  for  one 
to  do  in  this  matter  is  to  make  subject-matter  requirements 
rather  than  page  requirements.  Granting  that  the  facilities 
are  at  hand,  some  collateral  reading  should  be  demanded  nearly 
every  day,  the  frequency  depending  upon  the  fullness  of  the 
textbook  treatment  of  the  general  topics  with  which  the  course 
deals.  Having  assignments  made  in  terms  of  material  rather 
than  pages  the  pupils  will  feel  that  they  are  reading  history 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  valuable  and  usable  information 
on  a  point  and  not  merely  killing  time  on  so  many  pages. 
For  all  practical  purposes  the  less  said  about  the  number  of 
pages  the  better. 

The  matter  of  assigning  collateral  reading  can  be  made  a  rela- 
tively simple  affair.    If  the  teacher  has  his  work  carefully 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS 


191 


planned  with  the  collateral  reading  forming  an  integral  part  of 
it,  he  can  readily  indicate  on  making  the  day-by-day  assignments 
just  what  reading  is  demanded  of  all  and  what  is  required  of 
certain  members  of  the  class.  In  taking  up  a  new  topic,  for 
example,  the  French  Revolution,  a  very  good  scheme  is  to  give 
each  pupil  at  the  outset  an  outline  of  the  work  with  the 
collateral  reading  specifically  designated.  It  will  then  be  nec- 
essary, only,  from  day  to  day,  to  call  attention  briefly  to  the 
extra  reading  to  be  done.  In  assigning  special  readings  the 
teacher  must  be  sure  that  they  are  adapted  to  the  students  to 
whom  they  are  assigned.  An  opportunity  offers  itself  here  of 
adjusting  the  collateral  reading  to  the  special  capacities  of 
the  various  members  of  the  class. 

The  problem  of  checking  collateral  reading  is  one  that  has 
given  many  good  history  teachers  considerable  difficulty.  In 
this  matter  there  is  little  uniformity,  some  arguing  for  one 
method  and  some  for  another.  The  prevalence  of  the  use  of  a 
number  of  modes  of  testing  collateral  reading  is  shown  in 
Table  IV  from  Dr.  Koos's  study,  which  contains  the  latest 
data  on  the  matter. 


TABLE  IV.    NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS  REPORTING  USE  OF 
CERTAIN  MODES  OF  TESTING  COLLATERAL  READING ^ 


Modes  of  Testing 

Ancient 
History 

M. AND  M. 

History 

English 
History 

American 
H  istory 

Total 

Oral  reports  in  class     .     .     . 
Discussions  in  class     .     .     . 

Quizzes  in  class 

Written  examination  or  tests 

Written  reports 

Themes 

Notebooks 

Outlines  or  digests  handed  in 

64 
48 

22 
27 

31 

24 

39 

25 

44 

34 
22 

'7 

22 

16 
30 
19 

15 
12 

8 

9 
6 

4 
10 

4 

95 
75 
54 
50 
54 
27 
61 
47 

218 
169 
106 
103 
113 
71 
140 

95 

Total  number  of  responses 
to  questionnaire   .... 

71 

52 

17 

104 

244 

The  Administration  of  Secojidary-School  Units,  p.  103. 


192  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Table  IV  certainly  contains  most  of  the  effective  modes  of 
testing  collateral  reading.  One  not  included  is  the  personal 
conference,  which  is  very  potent  in  checking  the  reading  done 
in  the  field  of  historical  fiction.  There  are,  however,  numerous 
ways  of  using  each  of  the  modes  listed  in  this  table.  For 
example,  *Vritten  reports"  with  one  teacher  means  notes  taken 
on  a  week's  reading  and  handed  in  on  Friday.  These  are  in 
the  form  of  direct  quotations  and  abstracts,  taken  topically 
and  accompanied  by  a  list  of  reading  for  the  week,  giving 
author,  title  of  book,  particular  subject  discussed,  chapter, 
and  pages,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  the  total  number  of 
pages  read.  Another  teacher  has  all  of  the  required  readings 
outlined  on  cards  for  his  own  use  in  checking  and  asks  the 
students  to  hand  in  outlines  of  them.  This  teacher  then  com- 
pares the  work  the  students  hand  in  with  his  own,  and  if  it  is 
satisfactory  stamps  it  so.  There  are,  in  fact,  about  as  many 
specific  forms  of  testing  collateral  reading  by  written  reports 
as  there  are  teachers  using  it.  Since  this  is  also  true  of 
many  of  the  other  methods  listed  in  Table  IV,  it  does  not 
seem  worth  while  to  consider  each  of  them  in  its  multifarious 
forms.  Attention  will  therefore  be  turned  to  the  practical  side 
of  the  matter  when  viewed  from  the  angle  of  actual  high- 
school  conditions. 

There  are  certain  things  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of  check- 
ing collateral  reading  by  means  of  oral  reports  in  class.  If 
done  in  a  formal  way,  it  is  easy  on  the  teacher  but  hard  on  the 
class.  It  can  be  managed  by  a  teacher  who  is  overworked,  as 
most  history  teachers  are,  since  it  requires  no  time  outside 
of  the  recitation  period.  When  the  collateral  reading,  however, 
is  an  integral  part  of  the  daily  lesson,  this  method  cannot 
escape  being  formal,  and  if  its  use  is  long  continued  it  will 
tend  to  kill  all  interest  in  history.  For  this  reason  the  method 
should  be  sparingly  used  and  confined  to  special  reports. 

Testing  collateral  reading  through  class  discussions  and  oral 
quizzes  undeniably  relieves  the  students  of  a  certain  amount  of 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  193 

rather  painful  drudgery  and  makes  the  work  of  the  teacher 
less  burdensome — two  things  of  vital  importance  in  admin- 
istering any  scheme  for  conducting  this  phase  of  history  work. 
It  is  especially  claimed  for  the  oral  quiz  that  new  life  is 
infused  into  the  subject  through  its  use,  because  the  teacher's 
questions  can  be  framed  so  as  to  bring  out  the  human  element 
in  the  study.  Like  claim  is  also  made  for  the  class-discussion 
method,  providing  the  teacher  skillfully  directs  the  discussion 
and  does  not  place  too  much  emphasis  on  facts  as  facts.  The 
ideal  to  aim  at  with  both  of  these  methods  is  for  the  teacher 
through  his  questions  so  to  vivify  the  subject  that  the  student 
will  go  on  reading  without  compulsion.  One  serious  objection 
to  these  methods  is  that,  since  they  contemplate  setting  aside 
certain  days  for  testing,  they  are  likely  to  cause  the  pupils 
to  feel  that  the  collateral  reading  and  the  regular  daily  work 
are  two  separate  and  distinct  things.  If  the  collateral  reading 
is  mainly  used,  as  it  should  be,  to  elaborate  and  make  intelli- 
gible the  textbook  treatment  of  the  subject,  no  mode  of  testing 
it  which  does  not  require  daily  application  will  be  free  from 
adverse  criticisms. 

Testing  collateral  reading  by  means  of  any  form  of  written 
work  is  likely  to  become  a  burden  both  to  pupils  and  to  teacher 
— to  the  pupils  in  preparing  the  exercises  and  to  the  teacher 
in  grading  them.  On  the  part  of  the  pupils  this  work  often 
degenerates  into  mere  copying.  The  teacher's  time  for  grading 
is  limited,  hence  the  danger  of  inadequateness.  When  pupils 
feel  that  their  wori  is  not  carefully  graded,  they  are  likely  to 
prepare  it  carelessly,  from  the  standpoint  both  of  history 
and  of  English.  To  avoid  all  of  these  pitfalls  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  method  of  testing  collateral  reading  solely  by  means 
of  written  reports,  the  teacher  would  have  to  reduce  the  written 
work  to  an  amount  that  would  practically  defeat  all  the  pur- 
poses of  collateral  reading. 

It  would  seem  from  the  foregoing  adverse  criticisms  of  the 
various  modes  of  checking  collateral  reading  listed  in  Table  IV 


194  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

that  there  is  no  way  to  test  the  work  which  is  not  fraught 
with  a  multitude  of  dangers.  The  situation,  however,  is  not 
so  hopeless  as  it  at  first  seems.  A  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is 
a  scheme  that  will  combine  all  the  good  qualities  in  each  of  the 
modes  thus  far  discussed  and  eliminate  as  many  of  the  objec- 
tionable ones  as  is  possible.  One  scheme  whereby  this  can  be 
done  is  the  following :  Plan  the  collateral  reading  so  that  it 
will  be  a  necessary  and  integral  part  of  the  daily  work.  In 
doing  this  it  will  be  found  that  the  majority  of  the  reading 
will  be  of  two  types,  namely,  readings  on  special  topics  re- 
quired daily  of  three  or  four  students  and  readings  assigned 
to  the  class  as  a  whole.  Readings  given  out  one  day  will  be 
tested  the  next  during  the  recitation  period.  If  a  student 
makes  an  acceptable  report  on  the  special  topic  assigned  him, 
there  is  no  need  of  further  testing.  Since  but  one  or  two  of 
these  reports  can  be  given  each  day,  it  will  be  necessary  to  find 
other  methods  of  testing  those  who  make  no  special  reports. 
There  are  two  effective  ways  to  do  this.  One  is  to  conduct 
the  recitation  so  as  to  make  successful  reciting  depend  upon 
thorough  preparation  of  the  extra  reading  assigned.  This 
test  would  in  all  probability  reach  the  majority  of  the  class. 
To  make  sure,  however,  that  no  one  escapes,  it  had  better  be 
supplemented  by  one  that  is  sure  to  include  all.  Of  necessity 
any  mode  of  testing  that  will  affect  all  will  be  administered 
through  written  reports  to  be  handed  in.  These  can  be  in  the 
form  of  outlines,  digests,  or  summaries  and  should  give  the 
opportunity  for  the  pupil  to  apply  what  he  has  been  taught  in 
English  and  elsewhere  concerning  these  forms  of  written  work. 
One  way  to  report  this  kind  of  work  is  on  a  card  about  4"  x  6" 
in  size.  This  plan  prevents  long  reports  and  at  the  same  time  is 
well  adapted  to  the  making  of  outlines,  synopses,  and  digests. 
All  of  one  side  of  the  card  and  a  part  of  the  other  should  be 
reserved  entirely  for  the  student's  notes,  the  remainder  con- 
taining such  items  as  appear  on  the  example  given  on  the 
following  page: 


COLLATERAL-READING  PROBLEMS  195 


HISTORY  READING  CARD 

Date Name 

References  Read 


Authc 


Title  of  Bock  or  Article 


Subject 


196  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Using  a  card  like  that  on  page  195,  the  student  would  begin 
his  notes  on  the  page  just  below  the  subject  or  topic  on  which 
he  is  reading,  and  continue  them  on  the  other  side  of  the  card. 
This  would  provide  all  the  space  that  should  be  used  in  making 
reports  such  as  the  ones  contemplated  here.  These  cards  would 
be  handed  in  the  next  day  following  the  assignment  of  the 
reading.  Students  should  be  permitted  to  retain  their  cards 
until  the  close  of  the  class  period  in  order  that  they  may  be 
encouraged  to  use  in  reciting  the  data  they  have  thus  collected. 
As  long  as  these  cards  are  satisfactory  they  should  not  be 
returned,  and  they  should  be  destroyed  at  the  end  of  each 
semester.  A  few  of  the  best  ones  might  be  retained  for 
examples  to  use  in  connection  with  teaching  beginning  classes 
how  to  use  them.  One  way  to  make  sure  that  cards  will  come 
in  regularly  is  to  devise  a  scheme  of  grading  which  will  make 
passing  in  the  course  next  to  impossible  when  they  are  neg- 
lected. Let  the  students  understand  the  plan  at  the  beginning 
of  the  semester.  They  will  then  feel  that  history-reading  cards 
regularly  handed  in  are  a  part  of  the  work  that  must  be  done, 
just  the  same  as  taking  examinations,  making  maps,  and  recit- 
ing when  called  upon. 

There  are  legitimate  kinds  of  collateral  reading  that  cannot 
be  checked  by  the  foregoing  scheme,  the  chief  ones  being 
historical  fiction  and  other  readings  chiefly  for  pleasure  and 
historical  setting,  and  the  reading  done  in  connection  with 
writing  a  term  paper.  This  latter  kind  needs  no  other  test 
than  the  finished  product.  All  of  the  former,  if  time  permits, 
should  be  tested  in  personal  interviews.  If  this  method  is  not 
practical,  a  written  test  of  a  general  character  is  the  next  best 
scheme.  Questions  like  the  following  might  be  asked  in  a  test 
of  this  nature :  Did  you  like  the  book  ?  Would  you  advise 
others  to  read  it?  Why?  Describe  a  principal  character,  or 
an  event  which  shows  the  historical  value  of  the  book.  It 
should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  type  of  work  aims 
primarily  to  foster  the  habit  of  reading  with  pleasure  historical 


COLLATERAL-RMDING  PROBLEMS  197 

literature  of  this  character  and  that  the  enjoyment  should 
not  be  neutralized  by  the  dread  of  a  test  that  is  somewhere 
in  the  future.  • 


ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 

BoTSFORD,  G.  W.  "The  Choice  and  Use  of  Books  relating  to  the  History 
of  Greece,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine^  V  (1914),  171  ff. 

Bourne,  H.  E.  "The  School  and  the  Library,"  The  Teaching  of  History 
and  Civics  in  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools,  chap.  viii. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1903. 

DuRBiN,  E.  C.  "Reference  Libraries  for  Ancient  History  in  the  High 
Schools,"  School  Review,  XII  (1914),  109  ff. 

Evans,  Jessie  C.  "How  to  make  Definite  a  Reference  Course  in  History 
in  High  Schools,"  Seventh  Annual  Convention  of  the  Association  of 
History  Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland,  pp.  12  ff., 
March,  1909. 

FuL WIDER,  L.  A.  "High  School  Texts  and  Equipment  in  History," 
Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Association  Proceedings,  IV  (1910-1911), 
245  ff. 

Garrett,  M.  B.  "Testing  Collateral  Reading,"  History  Teacher's  Maga- 
zine, VII  (1916),  S3  ff. 

GuTCH,  Milton  R.  "Efficiency  in  Supplementary  Reading,"  The  Texas 
History  Teacher's  Bulletin,  II  (1913),  3  ff. 

Hoover,  T.  N.  "History  Material  and  its  Keeping,"  History  Teacher's 
Magazine,  HI  (1911),  4f. 

Johnson,  Henry.  "The  Selection  and  Management  of  Collateral  Read- 
ing," The  Teaching  of  History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools, 
chap.  xiii.    The  Macmillan  Company,  191 5. 

Johnson,  W.  D.  "The  Library  and  History  Study,"  History  Teacher's 
Magazine,  VI  (1915),  31  ff. 

Nestor,  Ira  F.  "  Library  Work  and  Collateral  Reading,"  History  Teach- 
er's Magazine,  III  (1914),  53  ff. 

Perkins,  Clarence.  "Reference  Work  in  High-School  History  Courses,'** 
History  Teacher's  Magazine,  II  (1911),  123  ff. 

Pitts,  Lemuel.  "  Are  History  Libraries  used  to  Best  Advantage  ? " 
History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VII  (1916),  55  f. 

Robinson,  E.  V.  "Topics  for  Supplementary  Reading  and  Discussion 
in  United  States  History,"  School  Review,  V  C1897),  302  ff. 

Shortridge,  W.  p.  "Testing  Collateral  Reading,"  History  Teacher's 
MagcKine,  HI  (1912),  19. 


198  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Show,  A.  B.   "History  Reference  Library  for  High  Schools,"  History 

Teacher's  Magazine,  HI  (1912),  79  ff. 
Smith,  Mary  S.   "How  to  utilize  the  Library  in  High-School  History," 

History  Teacher's  Magazine,  V  (1914),  139  f. 
Smith,  P.  T.   "  Collateral  Reading  in  Recent  American  History,"  History 

Teacher's  Magazine,  IX  (1918),  202  ff. 
Wuesthoff,  W.  W.     "What  should  we  attempt  in  Collateral  Reading 

and  how  Shall  we  test  it  ?"  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VIII  (191 7>, 

129  ff. 


CHAPTER  X 

TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  IN  CONNECTION 
WITH  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY 

Since  the  fall  of  19 14  there  has  been  increasing  stress  on  the 
teaching  of  current  events  in  connection  with  history  and 
English,  especially  history.  The  World  War,  of  course,  was  the 
big  impelling  force  behind  this  augmented  attention  to  present- 
day  happenings.  Even  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  however, 
many  educators  and  a  few  history  teachers  had  come  to  feel 
that  too  much  emphasis  in  high-school  history  teaching  was 
placed  in  the  remote  past  at  the  expense  of  the  present.  With 
such  a  feeling  quite  prevalent  and  the  impelling  force  at  hand, 
there  is  no  occasion  for  surprise  at  the  heightened  emphasis 
given  to  current  topics  in  connection  with  high-school  history 
during  the  past  few  years. 

Need  and  Value  of  Current-Event  Study 

The  statement  is  often  made  concerning  much  of  the  ma- 
terial taught  in  present-day  history  courses  that  it  is  totally 
lacking  in  personal  appeal.  Too  many  pupils  have  the  same 
feeling  about  the  events  and  personages  in  far-away  times,  as 
had  Mike  in  a  little  story  told  on  one  occasion  by  Professor 
Muzzey.  As  the  story  goes,  the  Professor's  colleague  was  try- 
ing to  impress  upon  a  class  of  settlement  boys  the  awful 
character  of  Nero.  He  told  them  how  Nero  had  poisoned  his 
courtiers,  kicked  his  wife,  killed  his  mother,  and  how  he  had 
longed  to  sever  the  heads  of  all  his  subjects  with  a  single  stroke 
of  the  axe.     Then  turning  to  Mike,  to  get  his  reaction,  he 

199 


200  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

asked,  "Well,  Mike,  what  do  you  think  of  this  man  Nero?'' 
Mike  roused  himself  sufficiently  to  drawl  out,  "Huh,  he  never 
done  nothing  to  me ! "  The  absolute  lack  of  a  personal  appeal 
in  the  case  of  Mike  in  this  story  finds  its  counterpart  in  much 
history  work  today.  It  is  to  give  to  history  this  much-to-be- 
desired  personal  appeal  that  current-event  work  has  been 
brought  into  the  history  classes. 

Another  need  which  the  teaching  of  current  events  can  be 
made  to  meet  is  the  one  of  making  history  teaching  concrete 
and  objective.  One  of  the  fundamental  criteria  for  judging 
good  history  teaching  is  the  opportunity  given  the  pupils  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  their  work  to  do  concrete  and  objective 
thinking.  By  noting  comparisons  and  contrasts  in  past  and 
present-day  life,  by  seeing  the  beginnings  in  the  past  of  our 
present-day  institutions  and  customs,  and  by  the  constant 
illumination  of  the  past  by  means  of  the  present,  and  vice 
versa,  the  students  are  afforded  much  opportunity  for  concrete 
and  objective  thinking — som^ething  greatly  needed  because  of 
the  abstract  nature  of  so  much  of  the  material  with  which  the 
students  work. 

If  one  views  current-event  work  in  history  courses  from  the 
angle  of  its  value,  there  are  at  hand  considerations  by  both 
teachers  and  pupils.  The  chief  values  attributed  to  this  work 
by  enthusiastic  teachers  are  that  it  gives  the  pupils  an  insight 
into  history  in  the  making,  correlates  present-day  problems 
with  the  past,  helps  the  pupils  to  discover  present-day  interests 
and  tendencies ;  that  such  work  is  near  to  the  pupils,  practical, 
and  in  constant  demand ;  that  a  knowledge  of  his  relation  to 
current  happenings  is  of  first  importance  to  a  good  citizen ; 
that  current-event  work  gives  excellent  training  in  acquiring 
knowledge  ;  that  interest  in  any  work  is  of  prime  importance, 
and  current-event  study  tends  to  create  and  sustain  an  interest 
in  the  history  work ;  that  it  gives  opportunity  to  evaluate  a 
magazine  or  newspaper  article  and  decide"  upon  its  true  worth, 
thus  preventing  an  acceptance  of  everything  read ;    that  it 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  201 

develops  in  the  pupils  the  power  of  expression  and  the  ability 
to  make  themselves  clear  and  interesting  to  companions ;  that 
after  thorough  training  in  current-event  work  the  pupils  will 
as  citizens  take  increased  and  active  interest  in  civic  and 
political  affairs ;  that,  by  showing  the  pupils  that  most  ques- 
tions have  two  sides  and  therefore  need  much  study,  it  fosters 
the  habit  of  considering  questions  from  the  standpoint  of  reason 
and  judgment ;  and  that  it  acquaints  young  people  with  the 
right  sort  of  current  literature  to  read. 

This  array  of  values  of  current-event  work  gives  but  half 
of  the  story.  What  do  students  themselves  think  of  its  value  ? 
Fortunately  a  number  of  answers  to  this  question  are  at  hand. 
After  pursuing  current-event  work  for  a  time,  some  high-school 
students  when  asked  concerning  its  value  replied: 

1.  It  not  only  gives  you  an  idea  of  what  is  going  on  around 
you  but  it  also  gives  you  a  feeling  that  it  is  your  duty  to  find 
out  what  is  going  on  in  your  city,  state,  and  nation,  and  among 
the  nations. 

2.  It  gets  one  into  the  habit  of  reading  about  important  topics, 
a  habit  that  is  pretty  hard  to  get  rid  of,  and  one  that  we  don't 
want  to  get  rid  of. 

3.  It  enables  one  to  find  out  what  is  going  on  in  foreign  countries, 
and  shows  the  attitude  of  our  country  toward  other  countries. 

4.  It  makes  better  citizens  because  pupils  begin  to  look  into  mat- 
ters and  they  will  be  apt  to  continue  doing  so,  which  will  mean  that 
they  will  not  vote  a  certain  party  ticket  because  their  fathers  did. 

5.  It  prepares  one  for  a  respectable  standing  among  intelligent 
men,  and  enables  one  to  talk  about  politics  and  understand  when 
others  are  talking  about  the  government  and  daily  occurrences. 

6.  Perhaps  the  greatest  and  most  forcible  reason  for  studying 
current  events  is  that  to  be  an  intelligent  voter  one  must  have  a 
clear  idea  of  the  great  issues  of  the  day,  which  can  be  gained 
(practically  speaking)  in  no  other  way  than  by  a  study  of  current 
events  and  movements.^ 

1  Gathany,  "  How  I  teach  Current  Events,"  History  Teachef^s  Magazine, 
VII,  25. 


202  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


t 


The  Problems  of  Place,  Time,  and  Topics 

Having  convinced  himself  that  there  is  immense  value  in  a 
systematic  study  of  current  events  in  connection  with  the  work 
in  history,  the  teacher  is  ready  to  consider  some  other  matters. 
Let  us  suppose  that  it  is  the  question  of  the  particular  class  in 
which  to  teach  the  work  and  the  time  to  devote  to  iU  At  the 
present  time  it  is  quite  common  to  do  some  current-event  work 
in  all  high-school  history  classes.  Other  practices  are  to  carry 
on  the  work  in  conjunction  with  American  history  only,  or 
civics  only,  or  American  history  and  civics  only,  devoting  one 
period  a  week  to  it.  On  the  matter  both  of  the  class  in  which 
to  do  the  work  and  of  the  time  to  devote  to  it  the  following 
general  rules  seem  reasonable. 

1.  Do  some  current-event  work  in  connection  with  all  high- 
school  classes  in  history  and  in  civics. 

2.  Give  the  work  a  definite  place  and  time  on  the  program, 
preferably  one  period  a  week. 

3.  Vary  the  work  to  fit  the  needs  and  capacities  of  each 
class;  use  one  method  of  conducting  it  with  one  class  and  a 
different  method  with  another.  Let  the  work  exemplify  the 
principle  of  progress  within  the  subject. 

4.  Besides  the  regular  day  devoted  to  the  work  give  it  some 
attention  by  way  of  application  during  the  regular  history 
work  when  opportunity  affords. 

The  problem  of  determining  the  present-day  topics  with 
which  junior  and  senior  high-school  pupils  should  be  familiar 
is  by  no  means  an  easy  one  to  solve  satisfactorily.  One  way 
to  settle  the  matter  is  simply  to  let  the  magazines  and  news- 
papers determine  week  by  week  or  month  by  month  what  topics 
to  consider.  Another  and  more  systematic  mode  of  procedure 
is  to  examine  the  local,  state,  and  cosmopolitan  papers  cover- 
ing a  definite  period  and  discover  if  possible  the  topics  most 
consistently  before  the  public,  hence  the  ones  about  which 
citizens  should  be  best  informed.    To  illustrate  what  is  meant 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  203 

by  a  study  of  this  type,  Table  V  (p.  204)  is  given.  The  time 
covered  in  the  table  is  one  year  and  eight  months,  beginning  in 
July,  I9i3^|pd  ending  in  March,  19 15.  The  table  shows  results 
an  examination  of  138  daily  papers,  ranging  in 

dl  dailies  to  such  papers  as  the  New  York  Times. 

Ian  would  be  to  make  a  study  similar  to  Mr. 

one  class  each  year,  preferably  the  most  advanced 
one.  The  results  of  these  studies,  if  kept  from  year  to  year, 
could  be  used  as  a  guide  in  selecting  the  topics  to  be  considered 
in  the  lower  classes.  The  actual  training  gained  from  this 
work  would  well  pay  the  class  for  making  it.  If  one  adds  the 
social  value  resulting  therefrom  to  the  personal  gain,  the  sum 
total  of  the  results  would  justify  the  study. 

Possible  Methods  of  Procedure 

Since  some  current-event  work  is  to  be  done  in  each  history 
class,  the  method  of  procedure  becomes  a  very  important 
consideration.  If  there  is  any  advance  in  the  quality  of  the 
work  from  year  to  year,  it  will  have  to  be  secured  largely 
through  the  way  of  presenting  it.  It  may  be  possible  to  find 
a  method,  for  instance,  that  is  especially  adapted  to  each  of  the 
junior  high-school  grades  and  to  each  of  the  senior  high-school 
grades  as  well.  A  survey  of  the  various  methods  used  by  teach- 
ers may  throw  some  light  on  this  rather  intricate  problem. 

The  committee  method.  A  tentative  outline  which  will 
cover  the  main  issues  before  the  public  as  discovered  through 
an  examination  of  periodicals  and  daily  newspapers  is  first 
mapped  out,  the  class  having  a  part  in  this  work.  On  the 
basis  of  the  general  outline  thus  made,  a  committee  is  ap- 
pointed to  be  responsible  for  each  main  topic.  For  example, 
the  topics  might  be  "Men  and  Women  before  the  Public," 
''Capital  and  Labor,"  "Science  and  Invention,"  "Literature 
and  Art,"  "International  Events  of  Importance,"  "Religion 
and  Education,"  "Events  of  a  State  and  Local  Character." 


204 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


TABLE  V.    RELATIVE  STRENGTH  OF  INTERESTS  OPERATING 

IN  SOCIETY  AS  DETERMINED  FROM  WHAT  APPEARS  IN  THE 

DAILY  NEWSPAPERS! 


Topic 


13- 
14. 

15- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 

24. 

25- 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31- 
32- 


War . 

Sports 

Government 

Business 

Finance  

Crime 

Politics 

Education 

Deaths  and  Births  .... 

Society 

Safety  and  Accidents      .    . 

Noted  Persons 

Industries 

Religion 

Literature 

Persons  not  Noted      .    .     . 

Agriculture 

Theater "... 

Marriage 

Benevolence 

Improvements 

Weather      ....... 

Jokes 

Household  Arts 

Science  and  Discovery  .     . 

Fashion 

Amusements  and  Recreation 

Exposition 

Divorce 

Invention 

Transportation 

Art 


Average  Percentage 

OF  Space 

devoted  to  Topic 


•7 

•5 

•3 

.21 

.20 

•9 
•9 

.8 

•7 
.6 
.6 
•4 
•4 
•3 
.2 


1  Compiled  from  data  collected  by  T.  R.  Garth  and  published  in  School 
a7id  Society.,  Ill,  140  f. 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  205 

This  list  would  demand  seven  committees.  Some  of  these 
committees  would  report  once  a  week  and  others  once  a  month. 
The  exact  arrangement  would  be  determined  by  the  quantity 
of  material  available  on  the  various  topics  as  the  work  moves 
along.  The  recitation  in  carrying  out  this  method  of  procedure 
would  consist  of  committee  reports,  usually  by  the  chairman, 
the  report  being  based  on  work  done  by  the  entire  committee. 
If  five  committees  were  to  report  on  a  certain  day,  a  definite 
time  apportionment  should  be  used  so  that  one  or  two  of  them 
would  not  consume  all  the  time.  In  order  that  each  member 
of  the  class  may  be  familiarized  with  the  character  of  the 
material  that  he  must  read  in  following  each  general  topic  for 
a  month  or  so,  the  personnel  of  the  committees  should  be 
changed  from  time  to  time.^ 

The  report  method.  Each  pupil  is  required  to  choose  a  sub- 
ject which  he  will  follow  for  a  week  or  so  and  on  which  he 
will  report  the  results  of  his  study  to  the  class.  Concrete  in- 
formation given  in  definite  statements,  based  on  an  outline 
previously  approved  by  the  teacher,  is  demanded.  This  out- 
line should  be  in  such  a  form  as  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
class  to  copy  and  to  use  it  as  a  basis  for  note-taking  on  the 
report.  The  entire  class  is  held  responsible  for  the  contents  of 
each  report.  Two  or  more  pupils  may  select  the  same  topic, 
thus  making  possible  some  lively  discussion  of  the  report  when 
given. 

The  historical  method.  The  teacher  selects  some  important 
local,  national,  or  international  topic  to  be  followed  closely  for 
several  weeks.  In  this  case  the  outlining  of  the  work  is  done 
by  the  instructor.  Assignments  are  made  in  about  the  same 
way  as  in  the  regular  history  work.  In  pursuit  of  this  plan 
the  material  used  will  necessarily  be  a  week  or  more  old, 
because  the  teacher  must  know  the  subject  matter  before  he 
can  outline  it.     This  method  seems  particularly  well  fitted 

1  Kirk,  "A  Class  in  Current  Events,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine^ 
VII,  97  f. 


2o6  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

to  topics  which  require  some  historical  background  in  order 
to  be  thoroughly  understood  and  fully  appreciated  by  the  pupil. 
The  notebook  method.  Each  member  of  the  class  is  re- 
quired to  bring  in  once  a  week  a  digest  of  some  eight  or  ten 
events  of  his  own  choosing.  These  digests  are  placed  in  a 
permanent  current-event  notebook  along  with  suitable  clip- 
pings and  apt  illustrations  when  they  can  be  secured.  The 
notebook  work  is  arranged  according  to  some  definite  plan 
such  as  the  following: 

I.  Local  events  (in  the  town,  city,  or  state) 

A.  Name  of  the  event 

1.  Reference 

2.  Digest  of  the  event 

B.  Arrangement  as  under  A 

C.  Arrangement  as  under  A 
II.  National  events 

A.  Name  of  the  event 

1.  Reference 

2.  Digest  of  the  event 

B.  Arrangement  as  under  A 

C.  Arrangement  as  under  A 
III.  International  and  foreign  events 

A.  Name  of  the  event 

1.  Reference 

2.  Digest  of  the  event 

B.  Arrangement  as  under  A 
C  Arrangement  as  under  A^ 

The  informal  method.  All  restraints  and  definite  require- 
ments are  removed  from  the  work,  each  pupil  simply  being 
held  responsible  for  a  concise  report  on  some  event  on  the 
day  set  aside  for  the  work.  The  recitation  is  carried  on  in  the 
form  of  a  roll-call,  each  member  of  the  class  responding  with 
a  brief  report  on  some  one  of  the  week's  happenings.     This 

1  Gathany,  "  Using  Magazines  in  History  Classes,"  Outlook  (August  24, 
1-914),  pp.  1053  f. 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  207 

method,  it  will  be  observed,  places  the  chief  emphasis  on  habit 
formation  rather  than  on  information.  Its  chief  merits  are 
an  absence  of  formality  and  its  similarity  to  what  people  do  in 
actual  life  (that  is,  they  read  what  they  please  and  talk  about 
what  they  read  if  it  interests  them). 

The  textbook  method.  Whenever  a  periodical  is  used  as  a 
text,  certain  portions  are  set  aside  each  week  for  discussion. 
All  pupils  are  held  responsible  for  the  material,  just  as  they 
are  in  their  history  texts.  The  recitations  are  conducted  in 
about  the  same  manner  as  in  the  regular  history  work.  Maga- 
zines which  have  definite  sections  lend  themselves  to  this 
method.  For  example,  one  week  a  "Review  of  the  World" 
would  be  considered;  following  this,  "Persons  in  the  Fore- 
ground "  ;  the  next,  "  Science  and  Invention  " ;  and  the  fourth, 
"Religion,  Literature,  Education,  and  Art."  The  advantages 
here  are  that  the  teacher  can  assign  definite  tasks  and  demand 
their  performance,  also  a  unity  is  found  in  the  work  which 
is  too  often  absent  under  some  other  plans. 

Reports-on-asstgned-topics  method.  When  some  current- 
event  work  is  to  be  done  every  day,  four  or  five  pupils  are  ex- 
cused from  preparing  the  history  lesson  for  the  day  and  asked 
to  report  on  some  assigned  current  topic  or  topics.  When 
the  class  assembles,  the  regular  history  lesson  is  first  disposed 
of,  say  in  twenty  or  twenty-five  minutes,  the  remainder  of  the 
time  being  devoted  to  reports  on  the  assigned  current  topics. 
The  entire  class  keeps  the  results  of  these  reports  in  permanent 
notebooks.  The  general  outline  of  each  topic  is  given  in 
advance  by  the  teacher,  thus  leaving  only  the  details  to  be 
inserted  when  the  reports  are  actually  made.^ 

No  doubt  the  wide-awake  and  interested  teacher  will  dis- 
cover other  and  probably  better  ways  of  conducting  current- 
event  work  than  those  described  above.  There  are,  of  course, 
favorable  and  unfavorable  things  to  be  said  concerning  almost 
any  procedure,  as  there  seems  to  be'  no  best  one.    The  main 

1  Gathany,  "  Using  Magazines  in  History  Classes,"  op.  cit.  p.  1054. 


2o8  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

points  to  be  made  in  this  connection,  however,  are  (i)  that 
the  teacher  should  have  a  well-formulated  plan  for  the  work, 
one  that  is  thoroughly  understood  both  by  himself  and  by  the 
pupils ;  and  ( 2 )  that  there  must  be  some  gradation  in  the 
methods  used  in  lower  and  upper  classes,  which  is  another  way 
of  saying  that  the  method  must  be  adapted  to  the  class  using  it, 
and  that  the  one  employed  in  the  most  advanced  class  should 
use  all  of  the  knowledge  and  training  acquired  through  the 
methods  previously  employed. 

The  Magazine  to  Use 

In  all  probability  there  is  no  one  best  magazine  to  use  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  current  events.  The  following 
criteria  for  judging  the  fitness  of  a  periodical  for  this  work 
have  been  proposed :  ( i )  the  use  of  precise  and  exact  English  ; 
(2)  deafness  and  definiteness  in  presentation  ;  (3)  unquestioned 
scholarship ;  (4)  painstaking  care  in  giving  to  its  readers 
only  trustworthy  and  authoritative  information ;  ( 5 )  lack 
of  partisanship;  (6)  an  aggressive  policy  for  public  good; 
and  (7)  the  periodical's  power  and  purpose  to  arouse  public 
conscience.^  Most  people  will  concede  that  these  are  worthy 
and  well-stated  standards,  but  when  it  comes  to  applying  them 
to  magazines  in  general  one  encounters  some  seemingly  in- 
superable obstacles.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  respectable 
magazine  that  does  not  claim  to  embody  each  of  Mr.  Gathany's 
essential  characteristics  in  the  superlative  degree.  In  spite  of 
this  fact,  however,  and  the  special  attempt  of  some  magazines 
to  cater  to  these  demands  as  well,  to  date  there  is  no  periodical 
in  the  field,  printed  wholl}'^  for  use  in  current-topic  work,  that 
is  entirely  satisfactory.  The  magazines  claiming  this  distinc- 
tion have  simply  added  a  section  which  offers  suggestions  for 
using  the  material  that  they  have  always  been  printing.  The 
thought  here  is  that  the  major  articles  in.  these  magazines  are 

1  Gathany,  "  Using  Magazines  in  History  Classes,"  op.  cit.  p.  1053 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  209 

not  prepared  as  textbooks  are,  with  the  idea  that  they  are  to  be 
used  exclusively  by  high-school  pupils  of  a  certain  maturity. 
If  magazines  ever  attain  the  success  that  they  should  in 
presenting  material  adapted  to  high-school  students,  they  will 
have  to  displace  their  general  audience  with  a  limited  one. 
Until  they  do  this  the  teacher  will  have  to  do  what  has  been 
done  in  the  past  in  respect  to  the  magazine  to  use  in  current- 
event  work,  namely,  use  the  one  most  available,  as  there  is 
little  or  no  difference  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  material 
or  the  level  on  which  it  is  written  when  one  considers  the 
magazines  that  are  making  any  special  efforts  to  appeal 
to  those  interested  in  current-event  study.  However,  before 
one  can  decide  upon  the  magazine  to  use,  there  is  another 
question  which  must  be  settled,  namely,  whether  the  periodical 
is  to  be  a  weekly  or  a  monthly.  Let  us  examine  the  claims  of 
each  of  these. 

In  favor  of  the  weekly  periodical  it  can  be  said  that  if  regu- 
larly done  once  a  week,  current-event  work  adapts  itself 
admirably  to  such  a  plan.  The  articles  are  likely  to  be  up 
to  the  minute  and  rather  brief.  The  most  significant  happen- 
ings in  so  far  as  they  can  be  determined  at  so  short  a  range 
are  also  found  in  most  weekly  periodicals.  The  chief  objec- 
tions to  the  permanent  use  of  weeklies  are  that  they  generally 
depend  upon  newspapers  for  their  news,  hence  are  subject  to 
the  same  pitfalls,  only  to  a  less  degree,  as  newspapers ;  the 
articles  appearing  in  them  are  not  usually  of  permanent  value ; 
topics  treated  are  usually  incomplete  and  not  fully  developed ; 
the  general  make-up  of  the  periodicals  as  a  whole  is  not 
especially  appealing  to  high-school  pupils;  and  they  contain 
few  or  no  illustrations,  many  quotations,  and  a  general  lack  of 
continuity  in  treatment,  since  most  of  the  material  is  in  the 
form  of  a  survey. 

In  favor  of  the  monthly  periodical  the  following  statements 
may  be  made :  It  contains  a  large  variety  of  articles  by  differ- 
ent authors;  the  style  of  the  articles  usually  appeals  to  the 


210  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

high-school  students  because  it  is  more  like  what  they  are 
accustomed  to ;  it  is  usually  profusely  illustrated  and  therefore 
likely  to  attract  and  hold  young  readers ;  the  articles  are  often 
of  permanent  value,  because  they  are  written  by  individuals 
possessing  first-hand  knowledge ;  the  nature  of  the  material 
offers  many  opportunities  for  the  teacher  to  make  historic  and 
economic  parallels;  and,  because  topics  have  a  full  month  to 
develop,  the  treatment  can  approximate  completeness  and 
maturity.  As  for  the  objections  to  monthly  magazines,  it  may 
be  said  that  when  one  period  a  week  is  devoted  to  the  work, 
the  jStudent  is  likely  to  lose  interest  in  the  succeeding  three 

eks.  There  is  a  tendency  to  want  to  be  more  nearly  up  to 
the  minute  in  everyday  occurrences.  To  wait  a  whole  month 
for  important  and  exciting  news  is  too  much  to  expect.  It 
is  also  true  that  many  of  the  articles  in  a  monthly  magazine 
are  written  far  in  advance  of  their  publication.  Such  articles, 
of  course,  are  those  having  more  or  less  permanent  value,  and 
they  are  more  useful  as  supplementary  reading  matter  in  con- 
nection with  courses  in  geography,  history,  or  English. 
•  There  is  no  disposition  in  this  discussion  arbitrarily  to  settle 
the  debatable  questions  relative  to  the  best  magazine  for  use  in 
a  course  in  current  topics.  The  fact  is  that  many  teachers  may 
never  face  such  a  problem,  in  as  much  as  they  will  have  to 
depend  for  material  upon  the  magazines  to  which  the  pupils 
may  chance  to  have  access.  This  being  the  case,  the  problem 
assumes  a  different  nature,  namely,  that  of  making  the  best 
possible  use  of  the  varied  materials  at  the  teacher's  command. 

In  connection  with  this  matter  of  what  magazine  to  use  there 
are  two  other  considerations  which  deserve  some  thought  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.  These  are  the  preservation  of  certain 
types  of  material  for  future  use  and  the  study  of  magazines 
in  general.  As  the  current-topic  work  progresses  from  day  to 
day  there  will  appear  many  articles  of  historic  value,  which 
should  be  found  and  filed  away  for  future. reference.  It  would 
be  well  to  let  one  class  each  semester  specialize  in  the  collection 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  211 

and  proper  filing  of  this  type  of  material.  In  this  class  it 
would  be  better  not  to  rely  wholly  upon  material  from  any  one 
source  of  the  weekly  lessons.  After  a  magazine  has  been  used, 
ask  the  owner  to  donate  it  to  the  course.  Occasionally  through- 
out the  semester  certain  days  should  be  used  for  cutting  out  the 
articles  worth  preserving  and  binding  them  in  a  neat  form  for 
filing.  The  teacher,  with  the  assistance  of  the  class,  should  work 
out  a  definite  system  for  filing  and  cataloguing  this  material. 
If  this  is  done  with  intelligent  care,  it  will  be  of  inestimable 
value  for  future  reference  in  all  history  and  civics  courses. 

Before  leaving  high  school  each  student  should  have  the 
opportunity  of  a  special  study  of  magazines  and  newspapers. 
This  work  could  be  done  in  the  same  semester  in  which  the 
preserving  and  filing  of  material  are  emphasized.  These  two 
things  would  go  well  together,  since  each  demands  access  to  a 
number  of  magazines  for  its  successful  operation.  The  chief 
things  to  emphasize  in  the  study  of  magazines  are  the  numer- 
ous types  with  some  concrete  examples  of  each,  the  nature  and 
content  of  each  type,  and  the  chief  characteristics  of  dailies, 
weeklies,  and  monthlies.  The  purpose  of  this  work  is  thor- 
oughly to  acquaint  the  class  with  the  various  types  of  maga- 
zines so  that  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  will  guide  future 
magazine  reading.  It  will  also  serve  as  a  protection  to  some  in 
the  class  who  will  have  an  opportunity  to  find  out  by  a  com- 
parative study  the  best  periodicals  in  any  one  field. 

Some  Difficulties  and  Precautions 

Before  undertaking  work  with  a  class  in  current  topics  the 
teacher  should  know  that  there  are  certain  difficulties  which  he 
is  sure  to  encounter  and  that  by  knowing  and  heeding  a  few 
cautions  and  suggestions  he  may  reduce  them  to  a  minimum. 
Chief  among  these  difficulties  are :  ( i )  The  work  is  likely 
to  be  disconnected,  to  lack  unity,  and  to  have  few  tangible 
results.     (2)  The  importance  of  contemporary  events  is  easily 


212  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

overemphasized,  because  we  are  too  near  them  to  get  a  proper 
perspective;  the  student  is  likely  to  get  the  idea  from 
newspaper  and  periodical  accounts  that  most  present-day  hap- 
penings are  as  important  as  the  Fren(^h  or  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, (3)  Securing,  using,  and  properly  interpreting  the  sources 
of  information  are  obstacles  too  great  for  an  ordinary  class  to 
overcome.  Because  of  these  difficulties,  few  final  conclusions 
can  be  made,  which  is  somewhat  unfortunate  for  young  people 
who  crave  finality.  (4)  The  results  of  the  work  do  not  lend 
themselves  to  the  customary  test  used  in  history  and  civics. 
The  complaint  is  often  heard  that  pupils  seem  interested,  but 
when  any  semblance  of  a  test  is  administered  they  show  dense 
ignorance  of  what  they  are  supposed  to  know. 

The  following  precautions  and  suggestions  may  help  to 
solve  and  avoid  some  of  the  foregoing  difficulties :  ( i )  To 
keep  the  work  from  being  scrappy  and  disconnected,  center 
the  attention  of  the  class  as  far  as  possible  on  large  problems 
as  central  themes,  and  correlate  the  minor  events  around  them. 
Let  the  class  always  be  informed  as  to  the  exact  problem  or 
problems  under  considera'tion ;  keep  the  information  on  each 
large  problem  separate;  on  finishing  a  topic  summarize  the 
knowledge  gained  in  studying  it.  (2)  Continually  emphasize 
the  difficulties  connected  with  getting  the  proper  perspective 
of  history  in  the  making.  This  may  help  to  counteract  the 
tendency  to  overemphasize  certain  present-day  happenings. 
(3)  Make  the  work  so'  definite  that  it  can  be  tested  by  means 
of  the  customary  school  tests.  Definite  assignments  and  regu- 
lar tests  will  aid  in  this  matter.  If  it  is  felt  desirable,  short 
weekly  tests  could  be  given,  these  in  turn  to  be  followed  by 
a  regular  examination  once  in  every  five  or  six  weeks.  Of 
course  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  one  big  result  which 
must  come  from  this  work  can  probably  never  be  satisfactorily 
tested,  namely,  the  habit. of  reading  periodical  literature  and 
passing  judgment  on  the  contents  thereof.  (4)  Change  the 
method  of  conducting  the  work  as  soon  as  it  is  discovered  that 


TEACHING  CURRENT  EVENTS  213 

the  class  is  losing  interest  in  the  one  in  use.  However,  a 
method  once  undertaken  with  a  class  should  be  continued  until 
it  has  been  mastered.  If  interest  seems  to  lag,  it  may  be 
because  the  details  of  the  method  are  not  clear.  (5)  Make 
the  work  concrete  by  means  of  such  devices  as  individual  col- 
lections of  clippings,  pictures,  and  cartoons,  and  a  bulletin- 
board  for  which  the  entire  class  is  responsible.  In  order  to 
keep  up  interest  in  the  bulletin-board  some  attention  should  be 
given  to  it  every  day.  The  details  of  management  might  be 
placed  in  charge  of  a  committee  appointed  by  the  class,  said 
committee  being  held  responsible  for  keeping  the  board  filled 
with  material  directly  related  to  the  work  the  class  is  doing. 
Individuals  may  loan  clippings,  cartoons,  and  pictures  to  the 
committee  for  display  purposes,  these  to  be  returned  and  prop- 
erly filed  when  they  have  served  their  purpose  on  the 
bulletin-board. 

ADDITIONAL  READING  MATTER 

Andrews,  Arthur.  "Some  Suggestions  as  to  the  Use  and  Abuse  of 
Current  Events  in  History  Classes,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine, 
IX  (1918),  144 ff.' 

BoYNTON,  G.  E.  "The  Use  of  Current  Literature,"  History  Teacher's 
Magazine,  VII  (1916),  95  ff. 

Duncan,  D.  Shaw.  "Use  of  Magazines  in  History  Teaching,!^  History 
Teacher's  Magazine,  VIII  (1917),  160 f. 

Gathany,  J.  M.  "Tying  History  to  Life,"  Outlook,  CXX  (1918),  58  ff.; 
"Using  Magazines  in  History  Classes,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine, 
V  (1914),  288  ff.;  and  "How  I  handle  Current  Events,"  ibid.  VII 
(1916),  24ff. 

Gore,  Alvin  G.  "Curreht  Events  in  the  High  School,"  Teaching,  HI 
(1917),  22  ff. 

Hendricks,  E.-  L.  "A  Course  in  Current  History,"  Mississippi  Valley 
Historical  Association  Proceedings,  VI  (1912-1913),  332  ff. 

Kirk,  Annie  B.  "A  Class  in  Current  Events,"  History  Teacher's  Maga- 
zine, VII  (191 6),  97  f. 

Nelson,  J.  C.  "Teaching  of  Contemporary  History  in  the  High  School," 
History  Teacher's  Magazine,  VI  (i9i5)>  82  ff. 

■     'I 


CHAPTER  XI 

PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  THE  LESSON 

Successful  teachers  will  testify  to  the  fact  that  nothing 
brings  such  large  returns  both  to  themselves  and  to  the  pupils 
as  a  careful  and  detailed  planning  of  an  entire  course  long 
before  it  begins.  The  chief  rewards  to  the  teacher  resulting 
from  painstaking  (care  in  planning  are  the  pleasure  in  seeing 
the  work  move  along  with  smnnthnp^ti  anH  Hpfinitp^^^fit;^  free- 
dom from  the  daily  worry  about  things  to  do  next,  time  for 
wide  reading  and  search  for  material  to  make  the  work  more 
concrete,  time  to  grade  written  work,  and  the  pleasure  that 
comes  from  a  piece  of  work  well  done.  On  the  part  of  the 
pupils  the  most  outstanding  returns  are  the  fact  that  they 
always  know  just  what  they  are  doing,  the  ease  with  which  they 
group  the  main  facts  of  the  course,  the  enthusiasm  and  pleasure 
gained  from  a  course  in  which  they  feel  that  they  are  succeed- 
ing, and  the  freedom  from  the  floundering  which  too  often 
accompanies  courses  where  no  one  seems  to  know  just  what 
turn  things  are  to  take  next.  To  obtain  these  ends  for  himself 
and  his  pupils  the  teacher  must  know  what  it  really  means  to 
have  the  entire  course  as  well  as  each  lesson  planned  in  detail. 
It  is  to  a  somewhat  minute  consideration  of  these  matters  that 
this  chapter  is  devoted. 

Generally  speaking,  efficient  course  planning  in  history  in- 
volves some  ten  specific  things :  ( i )  objectives  or  attainments ; 
(2)  the  general  organization  for  teaching  purposes  of  the 
field  of  history  in  question;  (3)  an  overview  of  each  main 
division  of  the  field ;  (4)  the  six  or  eight  maps  to  make,  in- 
cluding the  main  features  to  be  shown  on -each ;  (5)  a  list  of 

214 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       215 

the  significant  personages  to  know  and  identify;  (6)  a  list  of 
the  dates-events  to  remember;  (7)  the  general  and  specific 
methods  of  procedure;  (8)  the  analysis  of  some  half-dozen 
textbooks  in  the  field;  (9)  library  and  laboratory  equipment; 
and  (10)  a  detailed  outline  of  each  topic  taught  in  the  course 
according  to  some  definite  and  workable  scheme. 

Objectives  or  Attainments 

Under  objectives  and  attainments  will  come  two  things: 
a  statement  of  the  particularized  objectives  or  attainments  of 
history  in  general  and  the  same  sort  of  a  statement  relative 
to  the  particular  field  of  history  being  organized.  Neither  of 
these  statements  need  to  be  known  to  the  student  except  as  the 
course  reveals  them  to  him  as  it  proceeds  from  day  to  day. 
The  writer  has  no  dogmatic  statement  as  to  just  what  these 
objectives  should  be.  A  famous  committee  some  twenty  years 
ago  said  that  the  chief  objectives  in  studying  and  teaching 
high-school  history  should  be  ( i )  to-  bring  boys  and  girls  to 
some  knowledge  of  their  environment ;  ( 2 )  to  fit  boys  and 
girls  to  become  intelligent  citizens;  (3)  to  cultivate  the  judg- 
ment ;  (4)  to  give  power  in  arranging  and  systematizing  facts ; 
(5)  to  develop  the  scientific  habit  of  mind  and  thought ;  (6)  to 
furnish  the  opportunity  for  the  student  to  acquire  a  store  of 
valuable  historical  material;  (7)  to  broaden  the  sympathies 
and  lay  the  foundation  for  permanent  and  worthy  refinement ; 
(8)  to  give  training  in  handling  books;  (9)  to  quicken, 
strengthen,  and  discipline  the  imagination;  and  (10)  to  afford 
training  in  good  diction.^  What  high-school  teachers  them- 
selves claim  as  the  aims  or  objectives  in  the  four  traditional 
fields  of  history  is  found  in  Table  VI  (p.  216). 

Additional  tabulations  of  objectives  could  be  given,  but  since 
they  would  be  more  or  less  a  repetition  of  the  preceding  two, 
their  inclusion  here  would  contribute  nothing  to  the  discussion. 

^  Committee  of  Seven,  The  Study  of  History  in  Schools  {1898),  pp.  i6ff. 


2l6 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


TABLE  VI.    PERCENTAGE  OF  CONCURRENCE  OF  TEACHERS 

OF  HISTORY  IN  AIMS  LISTED  IN  THE  INQUIRY  CONDUCTED 

BY  DR.  LEONARD  KOOS^ 


Aims 


1.  To  master  the  text     .... 

2.  To  cultivate  the  power  of 
handHng  facts 

3.  To  develop  the  spirit  of 
nationalism 

4.  To  cultivate  "  reconstructive 
imagination" 

5.  To  equip  the  student  with  a 
store  of  historical  informa- 
tion     

6.  To  develop  the  "  faculty  of 
discrimination" 

7.  To  promote  good  citizenship 

8.  To  develop  ability  in  speech, 
oral  and  written 

9.  To  inspire  with  a  love  of 
reading 

[Q.  To  teach  the  use  of  books     . 


Ancient 
History 


59-2 
85.9 
42.3 

59-2 

62.0 

67.6 

73-2 

76.1 

634 
74.6 


Medieval 

AND  Modern 

History 


44.2 
78.9 
40.4 
55.8 

654 

75-0 
69.2 

654 

75-0 
82.7 


English 
History 


52-9 
82.4 
47.1 
82.4 

64.7 

94.1 
70.6 

58.8 

70,6 
82.4 


American 
History 


46.2 
81.7 
70.2 

59-6 

57.7 

82.7 
93-3 

76.0 

63-5 
74.0 


Furthermore,  little  other  than  mere  opinion  is  represented  in 
either  of  the  two  preceding  lists,  as  would  be  the  case  in 
additional  ones  that  might  be  given.  While  the  history  teacher 
is  waiting  for  the  objectives  in  his  subject  to  be  scientifically 
determined,  he  will  have  to  select  from  the  unscientifically 
determined  ones  those  he  thinks  of  most  value  and  see  that  he 
accomplishes  them  through  his  teaching.  If  he  thinks  it  a 
desirable  thing  to  do,  however,  he  can  set  up  specific  objectives 
for  each  course,  these  being  stated  in  terms  of  the  general 
organization.  That  is,  he  can  say  just  what  each  student  on 
completing  any  particular  course  must  know  and  be  able  to  do. 
For  example,  a  list  of  these  particularized  requirements  would 

1  Administration  of  Secondary-School  Units,  p.  105. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       217 

include  certain  maps  to  make,  personages  to  know,  dates- 
events  to  remember,  an  overview  to  know,  and  a  number  of 
books  relating  to  the  subject  with  which  to  be  familiar.  These 
specific  objectives  would  add  definiteness  to  the  work  and  in  a 
measure  offset  the  indefinite  ends  which  are  usually  given  for 
the  subject  of  history. 

General  Organization  for  Teaching  Purposes 

The  general  organization  for  teaching  purposes  of  any  field 
of  history  includes  three  things:  the  name  and  date  boundary 
of  the  six  or  eight  main  divisions,  the  percentage  of  time  to  be 
given  to  each  division,  and  the  six  or  eight  leading  topics  under 
each  big  division.  To  explain  what  is  meant  by  each  of  these 
the  field  of  American  history  will  be  used  as  an  example. 

First,  as  to  the  general  organization  of  the  field  and  the 
percentage  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  each  main  division:  There 
are  certain  prerequisites  or  principles  which  should  guide 
one  in  organizing  the  field  of  American  history,  or  any  field 
for  that  matter,  for  teaching  purposes,  ^hief  among  these 
are  the  number,  length,  date  boundaries,  and  names  of  the 
main  divisions)  The  name  must  suggest  the  dominant  move- 
ments or  characteristics  of  the  period  and  must  likewise  be 
short  enough  to  be  held  in  mind  without  difficulty.  The  date 
boundary  must  mark,  roughly  at  least,  the  beginning  and  th^ 
end  of  the  movement?  Each  division  must  be  long  enough  to 
illustrate  progress  and  development;  but  not  so  long  as  to  make 
it  difficult  for  the  pupil  to  keep  its  chief  characteristics  well  in 
mind.  All  of  these  will  in  a  measure  determine  the  number  of 
divisions,  which  should  be  neither  too  few  nor  too  many.  If 
there  are  too  few  divisions,  the  pupil  will  be  troubled  with  the 
complexities  they  contain ;  if  too  many,  he  will  have  difficulty 
in  keeping  them  in  mind  at  all  stages  of  his  progress  through 
the  course.  To  illustrate  these  prerequisites  the  following 
organization  of  American  history  for  teaching  purposes  in  the 
junior  high  school  is  submitted: 


2l8 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  FOR 
TEACHING  PURPOSES  IN  THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Name  and  Date  Boundary  of  Each  Large  Division 


Percentage 

OF  Total 
Time  Given 


I.  Perspective  and  introductory  view  —  factors  affect- 
ing early  American  history 

II.  The  period  of  discovery  and  exploration,  1492-1607 

III.  Colonization   and   the    struggle   for   supremacy   in 
North  America,  1607-17  63 .    . 

IV.  Revolution  and  the  establishment  of  the  American 
nation,  1 763-1 789 

V.  Nationalism  and  democracy,  1789-1829 

VI.  Expansion  and  conflict,  1829-1865 

VII.  Reconstruction  and  consolidation,  1865-1897    .    .    . 

VIII.  National  expansion  and  the  new  democracy,  1897  to 

present  time 


10 
12 
16 
17 

_± 
100 


To  explain  what  is  meant  by  the  six  or  eight  leading  topics 
under  each  main  division,  let  us  take  the  first  two  of-  the 
divisions  given  above.  When  worked  out  for  teaching  pur- 
poses the  general  outline  of  these  two  divisions  would  be : 

I.  Perspective    and    introductory    view-factors     affecting     early 
American   history. 

A.  Overview  story  of  the  entire  course. 

B.  Physical  features  of  eastern  North  America. 

C.  The  North  American  Indians. 

D.  European  background  of  American  history. 

II.  The  period  of  discovery  and  exploration,  1492-1607. 

A.  Spain  and  her  activities. 

B.  Portuguese  attempts  and  accomplishments. 

C.  English  explorations. 

D.  French  explorations  and  discoveries. 

E.  Rival  claims  to  North  America  in  about  1650. 

When  the  teacher  has  completed  the  remaining  division  of 
the  field  in  a  similar  manner,   or  else  thrown  two  periods 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON        219 

together  and  selected  topics  running  through  both  of  them,  or 
some  other  practical  and  definite  way,  and  decided  upon  the 
approximate  amount  of  time  each  leading  topic  is  to  receive  of 
the  time  devoted  to  the  main  division,  he  has  completed  the 
first  step  in  organizing  the  course  in  American  history  for 
teaching  purposes.  On  the  basis  of  all  these  accomplishments 
he  is  now  ready  to  undertake  another  phase  of  the  work. 

Maps  to  Make 

On  completing  the  work  relative  to  the  general  organization 
of  the  field  the  teacher  may  next  take  up  the  matter  of  maps 
to  make,  or,  if  he  prefers,  the  list  of  personages  to  know,  or 
the  dates-events  to  remember.  Let  us  suppose  he  begins  on  the 
maps.  (On  thinking  through  each  main  division  of  the  field  he 
will  decide  upon  the  minimum  amount  of  map  work  necessarj- 
to  make  the  historical  geography  clear.  The  number  of  in- 
dividual maps  need  not  be  large,  j  On  an  average  one  for 
each  main  division  is  a  very  safe  rule.  After  deciding  the 
number  of  maps  necessary,  the  name  for  each  is  the  next 
problem  to  be  solved.  Much  thought  can  profitably  be  spent 
on  the  names  for  the  various  maps,  since  each  is  to  be  so 
learned  that  it  can  be  reproduced  at  any  subsequent  time.  The 
following  list  of  maps  for  American  history  in  upper  elementary 
grades  and  junior  high  school  illustrate  what  is  meant  here. 

NAMES  OF  MAPS  TO  MAKE  IN  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

I.  North  America  North  of   Mexico — Physical  Features   and 

Indians. 
II.  Discovery  and  Exploration. 

III.  Conflicting  Claims  of  Territory  in  1650. 

IV.  Progress  of  Settlement  to  1750. 

V.  North  America  North  of  Mexico  in  1763. 
VI.  The  United  States  in  1790. 

VII.  Progressive  Territorial  Map  of  the  United  States  to  1853. 
VIII.  Admission  of  States  and  the  Status  of  Slavery  to  i860. 
IX.  The  United  States  and  her  Possessions  Today. 


220  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

The  value  and  importance  of  map  work  in  history  is  suf- 
ficient to  justify  the  teacher's  spending  considerable  time  on  it. 
On  the  value  and  lise  of  the  outline  map  in  history  teaching 
there  is  probably  no  clearer  statement  than  that  of  Harding 
when  he  says : 

The  filling  in  from  time  to  time  of  outline  maps  to  show  the 
geography  of  a  period  or  a  movement  is  almost  indispensable  to 
sound  historical  knowledge.  Nowhere  else,  perhaps,  will  the  prin- 
ciple of  "learning  by  doing"  be  found  so  sound  pedagogically. 
Accuracy  of  locations  should  be  insisted  upon,  for  the  deviation  of 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  on  the  pupil's  map  will  often  mean  a  difference 
of  a  hundred  miles  or  more  on  the  earth's  surface.  Water  colors, 
wax  crayons,  or  pastels  can  be  used  for  coloring ;  but  some 
instruction  should  be  given  in  their  technique. 

Finally,  as  a  means  of  testing  the  pupil's  knowledge,  they  should 
at  examination  time  or  on  other  occasions  be  required  to  show  from 
memory,  on  blank  outline  maps  furnished  them,  some  of  the  chief 
historical  locations  which  they  have  been  studying.  Probably 
there  is  no  other  device  which  will  more  certainly  make  for 
thorough  map  study,  both  in  their  textbooks  and  in  this  series.  It 
is  only  fair,  however,  that  this  requirement  should  be  announced 
beforehand,  and  fairness  also  demands  that  too  much  should  not 
be  made  of  it.  What  the  wise  teacher  will  demand  is  understand- 
ing— first,  last,  and  all  the  time;  but  if  the  study  of  history  is  to 
be  of  permanent  value,  as  much  accuracy  and  definiteness  of  detail 
as  is  possible  should  be  combined  with  this.^ 

The  second  part  of  Harding's  excellent  statement  indicates 
the  objective  to  be  reached  in  the  map  work  under  discussion 
here.  On  completing  a  course  each^tudent  should  be  able 
to  fill  in  from  memory  each  outline  map  he  has  been  required 
to  make  during  the  course.  The  number  of  maps  in  each  case 
should  be  kept  low  enough  to  make  this  demand  reasonable. 
Of  course,  temporary  maps  may  be  made  from  time  to  time  to 
illustrate  and   make  concrete  specific  historical   movements. 

1  A  Teacher^  Manual  accompanying  the  Harding  European  History 
Maps^  pp.  12  f. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       221 

These,  however,  should  not  be  confused  with  the  permanent 
maps  which  the  student  must  know.  Generally  speaking,  the 
temporary  maps  will  be  made  as  the  work  moves  along  from 
day  to  day,  and  the  few  permanent  ones  after  the  study  of  a 
specific  period  has  been  completed. 

Since  the  few  permanent  maps  are  to  be  filled  in  with  much 
care  and  as  accurately  as  possible,  specific  instructions  for  the 
work  had  better  be  given  the  pupils.  Directions  similar  to  the 
following  might  be  used.^ 

1.  Print  neatly  with  pen  and  ink  all  names,  dates,  descriptions, 
and  explanations.    No  script  must  appear  on  the  finished  rriap. 

2.  Locate  and  name  the  physical  features  called  for  in  connection 
with  each  map.  These  include  rivers,  mountain  ranges,  bodies  of 
water,  highlands,  mountain  passes,  and  the  like. 

3.  Trace  with  pen  as  needed  boundaries  of  countries,  territorial 
results  of  treaties,  routes  of  lines  of  march,  invasions,  explorations, 
movements  of  population,  and  similar  historical  data. 

4.  Locate  and  name  as  needed  political  areas,  cities,  towns,  and 
other  political  features. 

5.  Descriptions  and  explanations  must  be  done  briefly  and  with 
care.     Place  them  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 

6.  Use  color  sparingly.  With  a  Httle  practice  and  ingenuity 
you  can  do  the  whole  map  in  ink. 

7.  Place  your  own  name  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner. 

By  following  these  or  similar  directions  to  the  letter  a 
class  will  soon  be  producing  maps  of  a  uniformly  high  grade. 
That  there  may  be  no  waste  of  effort,  as  much  of  the  work 
as  possible  should  be  done  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher. 
This  is  especially  true  of  beginning  classes.  Since  no  course 
will  be  overburdened  with  historical  map-making,  the  teacher 
can  well  afford  to  take  the  recitation  time  for  some  of  this  work 
if  no  special  laboratory  periods  are  provided. 

1  For  valuable  suggestions  along  this  line  see  Bishop  and  Robinson, 
Practical  Map  Exercises  in  Medieval  and  Modern  European  History,  Ginn 
and  Company,  1920. 


222  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Dates-Events  to  Know  and  Remember 

History  teaching  has  often  been  criticized  adversely  because 
it  consisted  of  little  else  than  learning  and  reciting  a  long 
list  of  unrelated  facts.  For  this  reason  many  teachers  are 
somewhat  timid  when  it  comes  to  asking  their  pupils  actually 
to  learn  a  list  of  dates-events,  however  short.  There  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  many  teachers  who  feel  that  since  time  is 
one  of  the  chief  elements  of  history  it  becomes  very  necessary 
to  learn  a  few  dates  along  with  the  events  they  mark  and  the 
full  significance  of  each  in  order  to  have  the  necessary  historical 
guideposts  to  direct  the  pupil  along  his  journey  and  through  any 
particular  course.  It  is  with  this  latter  feeling  that  the  teacher 
should  enter  upon  the  work  of  preparing  a  minimum  list  of 
dates-events  to  be  learned  and  remembered  in  connection  with 
each  field  of  history. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  to  determine  the  list  of  dates- 
events  for  any  particular  field  of  history.  First,  the  teacher 
might  make  a  list  which  he  feels  necessary  to  teach  in  con- 
nection with  the  general  organization  he  has  decided  upon. 
After  completing  this  he  could  turn  to  all  the  textbooks  in  the 
field  in  question  and  make  a  list  based  on  the  suggestions 
found  therein.  He  could  then  turn  to  syllabuses  and  courses 
of  study  in  the  field;  also  ask  his  fellow  teachers  and  noted 
historians  to  submit  lists.  He  might,  furthermore,  examine 
current  literature  to  find  what  dates-events  occur  again  and 
again  there;  and  finally,  he  might,  as  he  would  in  the  field 
of  American  history,  turn  to  some  lists  already  made  by  com- 
mittees of  teachers.  Since  no  teacher  will  have  time  to  make  a 
list  based  on  all  these  methods  of  procedure,  he  will  either 
have  to  use  the  one  he  makes  himself  with  little  or  no  assist- 
ance, or  adopt  one  made  by  a  committee^  or  an  individual. 

1  In  the  field  of  American  history  the  teacher  will  find  a  list  of  dates- 
events  proposed  by  a  committee  of  which  the  wpter  was  chairman.  For 
the  complete  report  of  this  committee  see  either  the  School  Review^  Sep- 
tember, 1918,  or  the  Historical  Outlook^  November,  1918. 


r 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       223 


While  the  teacher  should  have  the  list  of  dates-events  made 
up  before  beginning  any  particular  course,  it  should  not  in  all 
probability  be  given  the  pupils  at  the  outset.  An  effective 
method  of  procedure  in  this  connection  is  to  let  the  pupils  feel 
that  they  have  some  part  in  making  the  list.  For  example,  on 
finishing  the  period  of  Expansion  and  Conflict  in  American 
history  a  retrospective  view  of  it  could  be  made.  This  would 
include  among  other  things  the  selection  of  the  dates-events 
falling  within  the  period  which  seem  worth  remembering.  If 
the  teacher  has  taught  the  period  with  these  well  in  mind  and 
given  each  proper  emphasis,  the  class  can  be  relied  upon  to 
name  and  discuss  them  when  given  the  opportunity.  Such  a 
procedure  will  save  this  sort  of  work  from  the  formal  character 
which  it  too  often  possesses. 

Historical  Personages  to  Know  and  Identify 

Similar  to  the  problem  of  selecting  a  list  of  dates-events  is 
that  of  deciding  upon  the  historical  personages  to  know  and 
identify.  In  this  case,  however,  there  are  certain  complexities 
not  found  in  the  making  of  the  dates-events  list.  It  seems 
necessary  to  make  for  each  course  two  lists  of  personages  to 
know  and  remember  rather  than  one.  One  could  designate 
these  lists  with  the  terms  "long"  and  "short."  The  latter 
would  include  from  twenty  to  thirty  personages  in  each  course 
with  whom  the  student  would  be  expected  to  become  well 
acquainted.  In  the  junior  high  school,  students  should  be 
able  to  write  a  statement  of  approximately  200  words  in 
length  about  each  character  on  the  short  list.  These  statements 
should  be  written  as  the  course  progresses  and  the  characters 
appear.  No  references  will  be  needed  in  preparing  them,  pro- 
vided the  teacher  duly  emphasizes  the  work  of  each  personage 
about  whom  he  wishes  such  a  statement  to  be  written /The 
long  list  will  include  individuals  for  identification  only.  The 
following  is  an  example  of  what  is  meant  by  the  short  list. 


2  24  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

PERSONAGES  TO  KNOW  AND  IDENTIFY  IN  AMERICAN 
HISTORY 

At  the  end  of  the  junior  high-school  course  the  student  should 
be  able  to  write  a  statement  of  about  200  words  in  length  about 
each  of  the  following : 

Samuel  Adams  General  Lafayette 

Thomas  H.  Benton  La  Salle 

Daniel  Boone  Robert  E.  Lee 

John  C.  Calhoun  Abraham  Lincoln 

Henry  Clay  James  Madison 

Christopher  Columbus  John  Marshall 

Jefferson  Davis  William  McKinley 

^Dorothea  Dix  James   Monroe 

Stephen  A.  Douglas  Samuel  P.  B.  Morse 

^Cyrus  W.  Field  ^      William  Penn 

Benjamin  Franklin  William  Pitt 

Robert  Fulton  Theodore  Roosevelt 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 

Alexander  Hamilton  George  Washington 

Patrick  Henry  Daniel  Webster 

Andrew  Jackson  Eli  Whitney^ 
Thomas  Jefferson 

The  lists  of  historical  personages  would  be  used  in  about 
the  same  way  as  a  list  of  dates-events.  Neither  of  them 
should  be  given  the  pupils  on  beginning  the  course,  since  they 
are  more  for  the  use  of  the  teacher  than  of  the  students.  Just 
as  the  student  should  be  able  to  make  a  list  of  the  most 
important  dates-events  on  completing  the  period  of  Expansion 
and  Conflict  in  American  history,  so  should  he  be  able  to 
make  a  short  and  a  long  list  of  historical  personages.  The 
character  of  this  performance  will,  of  course,  depend  upon 
the  emphasis  the  teacher  places  on  certain  individuals  as 
he  teaches  the  period.    In  most  cases  it  will  be  worth  while 

1  School  Review,  XXVI,  7  ;  also  Historical  Outlook,  IX,  445.  A  long  list 
in  the  same  field  may  be  found  here  also. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       225 


to  have  each  member  of  the  class  actually  write  the  200- 
word  statement  about  each  of  the  most  significant  personages 
whose  work  falls  within  the  period.  The  following  is  an 
example  of  what  a  statement  of  approximately  200  words 
about  Henry  Clay  might  contain.  It  will  be  observed  that  it 
is  more  than  a  tabulation  of  abstract  uninteresting  and  un- 
important biographical  facts. 

HENRY  CLAY 

Henry  Clay  was  a  prominent  character  in  American  history 
through  the  latter  half  of  the  period  we  have  called  Nationalism 
and  Democracy  and  most  of  the  period  designated  as  Expansion 
and  Conflict,  1829-1865.  He  first  came  into  prominence  in  con- 
nection with  the  War  of  18 12,  being  one  of  the  main  leaders  in 
bringing  it  on  and  one  of  our  representatives  at  the  peace  table 
which  ended  it.  He  did  his  first  work  as  a  great  compromiser  in 
1820  in  connection  with  the  Missouri  Compromise.  He  was  also 
prominent  in  bringing  about  two  other  great  compromises,  in  the 
controversies  over  the  tariff  in  the  early  thirties  and  the  Great 
Compromise  of  1850. 

In  his  day  Clay  was  known  as  a  Westerner,  being  from  Ken- 
tucky. Throughout  his  political  career  he  worked  first  for  the 
nation  as  a  whole  and  second  for  the  West.  He  was  a  stanch 
advocate  of  internal  improvements  and  a  protective  tariff,  both 
of  which  he  felt  were  needed  by  the  West.  His  chief  ambition  in 
life  he  never  attained,  namely,  the  election  to  the  office  of  president 
of  his  country,  for  which  he  always  seemed  to  be  running.  Even 
though  he  did  not  reach  the  object  of  his  Hfe's  ambition  and 
have  the  opportunity  of  serving  his  country  in  the  capacity  of 
president,  he  gained  sufficient  distinction  in  his  capacity  as  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  as  Secretary  of  State,  and  as 
senator  to  place  him  among  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
his    time. 

The  following  are  some  statements  which  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  the  term  "identify"  used  in  speaking  of  the  long 
list  of  personages : 


226  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

1.  Benjamin  Harrison  was  president  from  1889  to  1893.  He 
was  defeated  for  reelection  by  Grover  Cleveland,  whom  he  had 
defeated  in  1888. 

2.  Cyrus  McCormick  invented  the  reaper,  which  in  time  revolu- 
tionized the  methods  of  harvesting  small  grains. 

3.  Sir  Francis  Drake  was  the  first  Enghshman  to  circumnavigate 
the  globe, 

4.  Horace  Mann  was  a  great  educational  reformer,  doing  his 
work  in  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  Expansion  and  Conflict. 

5.  Sir  William  Johnson  was  the  great  Indian  Agent  who  did 
so  much  to  keep  the  Iroquois  Indians  on  the  side  of  the  EngUsh 
during  the  French  and  Indian  War. 

The  Overview  of  the  Entire  Field 

The  overview  should  be  in  narrative  form,  the  general 
organization  of  the  field  being  the  outline  to  follow  in  prepar- 
ing it.  In  all  probability  there  should  be  two  of  these  narra- 
tives, a  brief  one  and  a  long  one.  The  first  is  for  use  in 
beginning  the  course,  the  second  in  ending  it.  The  teacher 
should  actually  write  out  the  short  story,  but  not  necessarily 
the  long  one,  because  each  pupil  will  be  able  to  make  a  long 
story  of  his  own.  The  following  story  of  one  of  the  main 
divisions  o£  American  history  will  give  an  idea  of  what  the 
long  story  should  contain.  The  teacher  will  have  little  dif- 
ficulty in  formulating  a  short  story  based  on  it.^ 

A  STORY  OF  THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY  AND 
EXPLORATION,  1492-1607 

What  we  now  know  as  North  America  was  discovered  in  the 
year  a.d.  iooo  by  some  missionaries  from  Norway  on  their  way 
to  Greenland,  which  had  been  discovered  some  years  prior  to  this 
date.  Leif  Ericson,  sometimes  known  as  Leif  the  Lucky  and  Leif, 
son  of  Eric  the  Red,  was  the  leader  of  this  holy  expedition.     The 

1  The  best  short  story  of  the  entire  field  of  American  history  that  has 
come  to  the  writer's  attention  is  Eva  March  Tampan's  Little  Book  of  Our 
Country,  pubUshed  in  1919  by  Association  Press,  347  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       227 

name  "Vinland"  was  given  to  the  land  discovered,  because  of  the 
abundance  of  grapes  growing  there.  It  is  generally  agreed,  how- 
ever, that  it  must  have  been  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of 
what  is  now  Nova  Scotia  or  New  England,  and  that  to  Leif,  son 
of  Eric  the  Red,  belongs  the  honor  of  having  first  discovered  the 
New  World. 

We  best  know  these  brave  and  adventurous  sailors  from  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  and  Denmark  by  the  name  Northmen,  who  during  the 
tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  centuries  made  many  cruises  to  the 
western  lands.  Some  settlements  were  made  in  Iceland  and  Green- 
land and  probably  in  Vinland.  While  these  voyages  and  settlements 
were  probably  known  to  the  people  of  southern  and  southwestern 
Europe,  they  seem  to  have  had  no  permanent  interest  in  them. 
This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  Europe  during  the  three  centuries 
prior  to  1600  had  its  face  turned  eastward  rather  than  westward. 
The  early  Crusades  established  eastern  connections,  which  were  kept 
up  for  two  or  more  centuries.  A  great  trade  in  both  natural  and 
manufactured  products  sprang  up  between  Europe  and  the  Moham- 
medan lands.  The  cities  of  Genoa  and  Venice,  in  Italy,  were  the 
European  terminals  of  this  vast  eastern  trade.  From  these  two 
cities  all  western  Europe  received  many  of  hfe's  luxuries,  and  a 
multitude  of  men  grew  vastly  rich  in  handhng  them. 

Up  to  1453  Constantinople  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians. 
The  Crusades  had  failed  permanently  to  check  the  westward  march 
of  the  Mohammedans ;  so  when  they  captured  this  city  much 
of  Europe's  trade  with  the  Far  East  was  destroyed.  The  Itahan 
cities  began  at  once  to  decline  in  importance.  The  center  of 
navigation  now  moved  to  Lisbon,  Portugal,  and  Palos,  Spain.  Both 
of  these  nations  now  began  the  race  to  the  East  Indies  by  a  new 
and  all-sea  route.  Through  the  inspiration  of  Henry  the  Navigator, 
Dias  reached  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  and  in  1497  the 
journey  was  completed  under  the  leadership  of  Vasco  da  Gama,  who 
reached  Calicut,  India,  in  this  year. 

While  the  king  of  Portugal  was  straining  his  commercial  resources 
to  discover  a  new  and  all-water  route  to  the  East  Indies,  the 
king  and  queen  of  Spain  were  not  entirely  idle.  In  1492  Columbus 
sailed  under  the  flag  of  Spain  to  discover  an  all-water  route  to 
the  land  of  spices  and  pearls.    His  plan  was  to  sail  directly  west 


2  28  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

and  enter  China  through  the  front  door  rather  than  the  back,  as 
the  Portuguese  were  trying  to  do.  After  many  days  of  dangerous 
saihng,  the  little  fleet  of  three  vessels  and  some  ninety  men  landed 
on  a  small  island  in  what  we  now  know  as  the  West  Indies.  Before 
Columbus  returned  to  Spain  in  1493,  Cuba  and  Haiti  were  dis- 
covered and  slightly  explored.  In  three  subsequent  voyages  made 
by  this  brave  sailor  other  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  Trinidad 
Island,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River,  and  the  shores  of 
Honduras,  in  Central  America,  were  discovered.  While  Columbus 
failed  to  find  an  ocean  route  to  India,  as  he  still  thought  he  had 
found  in  1506  when  he  died,  he  did  even  a  greater  thing — he  put 
the  most  advanced  ideas  of  his  day  relative  to  the  shape  of  the 
earth  to  a  test,  and  by  so  doing  discovered  a  New  World.  This  in 
time  proved  to  be  a  much  greater  accompHshment  than  finding  an 
all-sea  route  to  an  old  one. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  Spain  and  Portugal 
were  the  two  great  maritime  powers  of  Europe.  There  seems  to 
have  been  an  agreement  between  these  two  powers  that  the  former 
should  confine  its  exploring  activities  to  seeking  the  Far  East  by  a 
western  route,  and  the  latter  by  a  southeastern  one,  around  south- 
ern Africa.  The  fact  that  Portugal  succeeded  in  reaching  the  goal 
of  her  desire  in  1497  and  estabhshed  a  lucrative  trade  with  the 
East  only  spurred  Spain  to  more  strenuous  efforts  to  complete 
v/hat  Columbus  had  begun;  so  between  1500  and  1550  many 
exploring,  colonizing,  and  conquering  expeditions  were  sent  out 
under  her  flag.  Noted  among  the  early  ones  of  these  voyages  was 
the  one  made  by  Americus  Vespucius,  an  Italian  navigator  in  the 
service  of  Spain,  in  whose  honor  America  was  named.  On  return- 
ing in  1499  from  a  voyage  to  the  northeastern  coast  of  South 
America,  Vespucius  wrote  an  account  of  the  country  he  had  visited. 
In  this  account  he  suggested  that  a  NeW  World  had  really  been 
discovered.  A  few  years  later,  a  geographer  by  the  name  of  Martin 
Waldseemiiller  in  a  little  essay  on  the  constitution  of  the  universe 
suggested  that  the  New  World,  having  been  found  by  Americus, 
should  be  named  in  his  honor  America.  From  this  slight  begin- 
ning the  idea  of  naming  the  New  World  America  developed, 
and  in  1541  the  name  was  applied  to  both  qontinents  as  we  know 
them  today. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       229 

The  chief  successors  of  Columbus  sailing  under  the  flag  of  Spain 
were  Balboa,  Ponce  de  Leon,  Magellan,  Cortez,  Narvaez,  De  Vaca, 
De  Soto,  and  Coronado.  Balboa,  a  bankrupt  farmer,  in  an  attempt 
to  escape  his  creditors,  secretly  embarked  with  a  recruiting  expedition 
to  the  northern  shores  of  South  America.  After  a  time  the  expedi- 
tion landed  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  where  it  was  learned  from  the 
Indians  that  there  existed  beyond  the  southward  mountains  a  great 
water  whose  waves  washed  shores  where  gold  was  so  plentiful  that 
the  commonest  utensils  were  made  of  it.  This  body  of  water 
Balboa  saw  in  15 13,  after  many  days  of  the  most  strenuous  travel. 
He  named  it  the  South  Sea  and  took  possession  of  all  the  land 
washed  by  its  waters  for  his  master,  the  king  of  Spain. 

In  the  same  year  (15 13)  that  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  Ponce  de  Leon  sailed  from  Cuba  in  his  search  for  gold  and 
a  fabulous  fountain  of  youth  and  discovered,  on  Easter  Sunday, 
the  eastern  coast  of  Florida.  Six  years  later  Magellan  set  out 
from  Spain  on  his  voyage  which,  when  ended,  proved  to  the  world 
that  the  earth  is  round.  After  sailing  south  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  South  America,  Magellan  finally  discovered  the  strait  which 
ever  since  has  borne  his  name.  For  more  than  a  month  his  ships 
battled  with  the  dangers  of  this  giant  strait.  Finally  the  passage 
through  it  was  completed  and  the  crew  entered  the  South  Sea,  to 
which  Magellan  gave  the  name  ''Pacific  Ocean."  Weeks  and  weeks 
were  spent  on  this  body  of  water.  At  last,  Magellan  discovered 
the  Philippine  Islands,  where  he  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the 
natives.  One  of  his  vessels  finally  reached  Spain  by  the  way  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  after  an  absence  of 
three  years,  thus  ending  one  of  the  greatest  feats  of  navigation 
that  has  ever  been  performed. 

While  Magellan  was  on  his  remarkable  voyage  around  the  world 
Cortez  was  making  one  of  the  greatest  conquests  in  history — 
the  conquest  of  central  Mexico.  After  two  years  of  hard  fighting 
and  enduring  the  severest  hardships  Cortez  conquered  this  rich 
country,  over  which  a  government  was  set  under  the  name  of 
"New  Spain."  Thus  was  established  the  first  great  colony  of 
Spain  on  the  continent  of  America,  from  which  great  quantities 
of  gold  and  silver  poured  into  the  coffers  of  her  king.  Similar 
conquests  were  made  in  South  America  and  attempted   in   the 


230  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

region  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  two  chief  attempts  to 
conquer  the  latter  region  were  made  by  Narvaez  in  1528  and 
De  Soto  in  1 539-1 542.  While  both  attempts  ended  disastrously,  the 
latter  is  important  because  the  Mississippi  River  was  discovered 
by  De  Soto  in  the  spring  of  1541.  This  great  river  was  reached 
after  a  fruitless  search  through  what  is  now  Georgia,  Alabama, 
and  Mississippi  for  what  was  thought  at  that  time  to  be  the  "richest 
country  in  the  world."  Crossing  over  into  what  is  now  the  state 
of  Arkansas,  De  Soto  continued  his  search,  which  ended  in  his 
death  in  1542.  The  survivors  of  the  expedition  built  boats  and 
floated  down  the  Mississippi,  and  finally  reached  some  Spanish 
settlements. 

Some  survivors  of  Narvaez's  expedition,  after  eight  years  of 
wandering  and  many  adventures,  finally  reached  the  Spanish  settle- 
ment founded  by  Cortez  on  the  Gulf  of  CaHfomia.  Their  glowing 
stories  of  the  rich  cities  which  they  had  visited  in  their  wanderings 
through  what  is  now  southwestern  United  States  influenced  Coro- 
nado  to  lead  an  expedition  from  Mexico  northward  in  search  of 
them.  After  nearly  two  years  (i 540-1 542)  of  wandering  the  expedi- 
tion returned,  having  advanced  as  far  north  and  east  as  the  present 
state  of  Kansas  and  discovered  the  Colorado  Canyon,  a  number 
of  Indian  pueblos,  and  the  "hunchback  cow,"  or  buffalo,  but  no 
great  riches  such  as  they  had  hoped  to  find. 

With  a  few  other  minor  expeditions  into  what  is  now  southern 
United  States,  Spain  gave  up  her  quest  for  gold  and  silver  in  these 
parts.  In  fact,  on  the  first  of  January,  1562,  there  was  probably 
not  a  Spaniard  on  the  soil  of  the  mainland  of  what  is  now  the 
United  States. 

The  chief  rivals  of  Spain  in  the  New  World  were  England  and 
France.  These  two  nations  gradually  awoke  to  the  consciousness 
of  the  opportunities  they  were  losing  in  America,  while  at  the 
same  time  Spain  became  so  beset  with  political  and  rehgious 
quarrels  at  home  that  she  was  fortunately  unable  to  prevent  other 
nations  settling  the  lands  she  claimed. 

England  began  her  voyages  to  the  New  World  as  early  as  1497, 
when  John  Cabot  discovered  the  mainland  of  North  America  some- 
where north  of  Halifax,  on  a  voyage  in  which  he  was  seeking  an 
all-water  route  to  China.    The  importance  of  this  voyage  Hes  in 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       231 

the  fact  that  it  gave  Englishmen  the  right  to  occupy  large 
portions  of  North  America.  It  did  not,  however,  stimulate  them 
to  a  great  effort  Hke  that  which  Spain  put  forth  immediately 
following  the  voyages  of  Columbus.  The  explanation  of  England's 
inactivity  is  found  in  the  fact  that  there  was  enough  excitement  at 
home  for  most  Englishmen  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  for  it  was  during  this  time  that  the  country  was  attempt- 
ing to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  War  of  the  Roses  and 
adjust  itself  to  the  changes  brought  about  by  the  Reformation. 
But  when  England  did  begin  her  aggressive  policy  to  overthrow 
Spain's  maritime  power,  things  moved  rather  rapidly.  To  John 
Hawkins  and  Francis  Drake,  two  of  England's  greatest  sixteenth- 
century  seamen,  much  of  the  credit  for  the  rapid  movement  of 
things  maritime  was  due.  The  former  did  his  best  work  in  making 
ready  the  royal  navy  to  dispute  the  supremacy  of  the  sea  with 
the  Armadas  of  Spain ;  and  the  latter  in  his  onslaught  on  the 
Spanish  colonies — thus  diminishing  the  resources  of  Phihp  II, 
the  king  of  Spain. 

Drake  is  best  known,  however,  for  his  famous  voyage  around  the 
world.  After  the  West  Indies  came  to  be  rather  securely  guarded 
by  Spain,  he  conceived  the  plan  of  sailing  through  the  Strait  of 
Magellan  and  capturing  all  the  Spanish  treasure  on  the  west  coast. 
So  in  1577  he  set  forth  to  attack  this  region  and  sail  on  seas  never 
before  known  to  an  English  sailor.  After  plundering  the  west 
coast  of  South  America  and  Mexico  and  faiHng  to  find  an  opening 
to  the  east,  the  expedition,  rather  than  face  the  dangers  of  return- 
ing by  way  of  the  Atlantic,  chose  to  cross  the  Pacific  and  return  to 
England  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  voyage  was 
successfully  completed  in  1579  when  the  Pelican  sailed  into 
Plymouth  harbor  with  an  immense  booty.  Drake  was  later 
knighted  by  the  queen  on  the  quarter-deck  of  his  ship,  and  the 
wrath  of  the  Spaniards  was  increased  immeasurably. 

While  Drake  was  on  his  way  home  from  his  dangerous  cruise 
a  new  line  of  exploring  and  colonizing  activity  broke  out  in 
England.  In  1578  Queen  Elizabeth  granted  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert 
and  his  heirs  the  right  to  discover,  explore,  and  inhabit  certain 
lands  in  the  New  World.  Sir  Humphrey's  efforts  cost  him  his  life, 
for  on  the  return  voyage   from  Newfoundland  and  the  country 


232  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

southward  his  vessel  went  down  and  all  on  board  were  lost.  His 
brother  Adrian  and  half-brother  Walter  Raleigh  succeeded  to  the 
rights  of  the  dead  explorer.  These  gentlemen  lost  no  time  in 
sending  other  expeditions  to  the  western  shores ;  in  1584  one 
fitted  out  by  Raleigh  landed  on  what  is  now  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina  and  remained  for  the  brief  period  of  two  months.  The 
next  year  another  expedition  was  sent  out  and  finally  established  a 
settlement  on  Roanoke  Island.  After  a  short  stay  the  settlers 
were  picked  up  by  Drake  on  one  of  his  later  voyages  and  taken 
back  to  England.  The  third  and  final  attempt  was  made  by 
Raleigh  in  1587.  In  this  year  three  vessels  brought  to  Virginia 
from  Plymouth,  England,  1550  men,  women,  and  children  and 
settled  them  on  the  same  island  that  had  been  deserted  by  the 
former  band.  The  ships  that  brought  them  soon  returned  to 
England  for  supplies.  On  their  return  four  years  later  nothing 
remained  but  the  houses  which  had  been  built  by  the  colonists. 
The  fate  of  this  ''lost  colony"  is  still  a  matter  of  conjecture 
among  historians. 

England's  struggle  with  Spain  for  the  supremacy  of  the  sea 
ended  in  her  favor  in  1588,  when  her  fleet  of  fifty  fighting  ships 
encountered  and  defeated  a  fleet  of  sixty-two  Spanish  vessels  in 
the  English  Channel.  Spain  attempted  to  retahate  upon  England 
after  this  disastrous  defeat,  but  with  meager  success.  The  work  of 
Hawkins  in  modernizing  the  English  fighting  ships  was  too  much  for 
the  slow,  conservative  efforts  of  the  once  powerful  Spaniards. 

Besides  England,  Spain  had  a  rival  in  France  for  power  in  both 
the  Old  World  and  the  New.  The  king  of  France  was  not  slow  to 
perceive  what  great  advantages  came  to  his  rival  from  the  riches 
drawn  from  the  New  World,  so  he  resolved  to  send  an  expedition 
to  this  region  in  order  that  he  himself  might  profit  by  some  of  these 
riches.  Verrazano,  a  native  of  Florence,  Italy,  was  chosen  to  lead 
the  expedition.  He  set  sail  in  1524  and  succeeded  in  exploring  the 
American  coast  from  North  Carolina  to  Maine.  On  the  way 
northward  the  vessel  entered  New  York  harbor,  possibly  something 
no  other  vessel  had  ever  done.  Little  came  from  the  voyage,  since 
the  king  was  so  busy  with  affairs  elsewhere.  Ten  years  later, 
however,  the  attempt  was  renewed  under  Cartier,  who  made  in 
all  four  voyages  and  gave  the  French  their  claim  to  Canada.    On 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       233 

these  voyages  Cartier  discovered  and  explored  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  as  far  as  where  Montreal  now  stands.  No  settlements  were 
attempted  at  this  time  in  the  North,  but  some  definite  attempts 
were  later  made  in  the  South. 

In  1562  Jean  Ribaut  led  an  expedition  to  the  American  coast. 
He  landed  in  the  neighborhood  of  where  St.  Augustine  now  stands. 
After  he  sailed  northward  for  a  considerable  distance,  a  landing  was 
effected,  and  a  garrison  of  thirty  men  was  left  at  Port  Royal 
Sound  to  hold  the  place.  Two  years  later  recruits  came  out  under 
the  leadership  of  Laudonniere,  a  Huguenot.  These  people  had  really 
come  to  plant  a  colony.  After  a  year  of  the  severest  hardships, 
however,  they  were  attacked  by  the  Spaniards  under  the  leadership 
of  Menendez  and  but  few  escaped  his  cruelty.  No  more  attempts 
were  made  by  the  French  to  settle  in  this  region.  All  their  efforts 
were  henceforth  directed  to  the  frozen  North,  where  in  the  course 
of  time  they  built  up  a  great  colonial  empire,  to  which  was  given 
the  name  of  New  France. 

Two  of  the  most  noted  leaders  in  founding  this  empire  were 
Champlain  and  De  Monts.  Through  their  efforts  a  colony  was 
estabUshed  at  Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1604.  Explorations  were 
also  made  along  the  eastern  shores  of  New  England  and  up  the 
St.  Lawrence,  where  a  trading  post  was  estabhshed  at  what  is  now 
Quebec,  in  1609.  While  here  Champlain  conceived  the  idea  of 
uniting  the  Indian  tribes  on  the  northern  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  conquering  the  Iroquois  south  of  this  region.  With  a  small 
band  of  these  northern  Indians  he  made  his  way  up  the  Richeheu 
River  into  the  lake  that  now  bears  his  name.  Somewhere  on  its 
western  edge  he  met  and  defeated  a  small  party  of  Iroquois.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  that  eternal  hatred  of  this  great  Indian 
nation  for  the  French.  A  few  weeks  later  a  Dutch  ship,  com- 
manded by  the  Englishman  Henry  Hudson,  encountered  another 
Iroquois  band,  which  he  entertained  royally.  Henceforth  this  great 
confederacy,  occupying  such  an  important  position,  was  the  ally 
of  the  Dutch  and  English  and  an  enemy  of  the  French,  thus  closing 
a  large  part  of  the  continent  to  Frenchmen  and  at  the  same  time 
protecting  the  Enghsh  colonies  from  French  attacks. 

After  these  vigorous  beginnings  of  Champlain  and  his  followers, 
things  moved  rather  slowly  in  New  France  for  a  half-century  or 


234  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

more.  It  was  not  until  1664  that  things  took  on  a  new  Ufe.  At 
this  date  the  population  was  doubled,  and  soon  other  explorers 
were  busy  enlarging  the  French  domain.  Chief  among  these  were 
Marquette,  JoHet,  and  La  Salle.  The  first  two,  in  1673,  went  down 
the  Mississippi  River  as  far  south  as  the  Arkansas,  returning  by 
way  of  the  Illinois  River  to  Lake  Michigan,  near  the  present  site 
of  Chicago.  La  Salle  in  1 681-1682  completed  what  Marquette  and 
Joliet  began.  As  early  as  1670  he  had  reached  the  Ohio  River. 
Hearing  of  the  voyage  of  Marquette,  he  resolved  to  push  on  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  take  possession  of  the  country  for 
France.  This  he  succeeded  in  accomplishing  in  the  spring  of  1682. 
France  was  now  in  possession  of  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  the 
Great  Lakes  region,  and  the  Mississippi  valley — the  heart  of 
the  American  continent ;  Spain,  of  Florida  and  the  country  to  the 
south  and  southwest ;  while  all  that  territory  along  the  Atlantic 
from  Port  Royal  to  St.  Augustine  was  left  solely  to  the  EngUsh- 
man  and  his  kinsfolk  from  northern  Europe.  This  locality  offered 
shght  hope  for  immediate  gain,  so  the  French  and  the  Spaniards 
passed  it  by,  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  there  existed  nowhere  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  a  region  better  fitted  for  permanent 
colonization  for  Europeans. 

The  Textbook  Analysis 

Since  the  general  and  specific  methods  of  procedure  and 
the  library  have  been  discussed  at  length  elsewhere,^  no 
further  consideration  need  be  given  them  here.  Attention, 
therefore,  may  be  turned  at  once  to  the  problem  of  textbook 
analysis  as  a  means  whereby  the  teacher  acquaints  himself 
with  the  main  tools  of  his  trade.  As  a  guide  in  this  analysis 
the  main  divisions  of  the  course  which  have  previously  been 
determined  upon  should  be  used.  They  are  the  big  units 
around  which  all  material  must  center.  Because  of  this  fact 
it  is  very  necessary  that  the  teacher  know  what  the  textbook 
he  is  to  use  has  on  each  main  division  and  also  what  other 
texts  in  the  same  field  contain.  By  knowing  the  first  of  these 
facts  he  can  at  once  determine  just  where  and  how  much  the 

1  See  Chapters  V  and  IX. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON       235 


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236  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

adopted  text  must  be  supplemented.  A  tabular  view  (Table 
VII)  of  a  number  of  texts  in  senior  high-schoj^  history  will 
illustrate  the  sort  of  analysis  that  is  meant  here. 

The  practical  use  that  can  be  made  of  the  material  in  Table 
VII  becomes  evident  as  soon  as  one  begins  to  interpret  it. 
Suppose  the  adopted  text  is  McLaughlin's  History  of  the 
American  Nation  and  the  teacher  desires  to  adapt  the  organi- 
zation of  the  field  found  in  the  table  and  the  time  to  spend 
on  each  main  division  to  it.  If  nine  days  are  to  be  spent 
on  the  first  big  division,  the  text  will  have  to  be  supplemented, 
since  it  devotes  but  six  pages  to  it.  From  the  data  before  him, 
the  teacher  knows  at  once  that  the  best  parallel  texts  to  use 
for  the  much-needed  supplementary  material  are  Hart's 
Essentials  in  American  History,  Cousins  and  Hill's  American 
History  for  Schools,  and  Fiske's  History  of  the  United  States. 
Running  on  through  the  remaining  large  division  it  will  be 
seen  that  material  in  addition  to  that  found  in  the  text  would 
have  to  be  sought  for  divisions  II,  IV,  V,  VII,  and  VIII.  In 
each  of  these  cases  the  table  tells  the  best  book  to  select  for 
one  type  of  supplementary  material. 

Organization  of  Each  Main  Topic  under  Each 
Large  Division 

After  the  textbooks  in  the  field  of  history  he  is  organizing 
have  been  analyzed  and  the  data  thrown  in  tabular  form,  the 
teacher  is  ready  to  begin  the  most  important  and  at  the  same 
time  most  difficult  part  of  his  work  of  course-planning,  namely, 
the  selection  of  the  main  topics  in  each  large  division  and  the 
organization  of  each  of  these  topics  for  teaching  purposes. 
To  show  concretely  a  form  this  work  might  take  and  what  is 
involved  in  organizing  a  topic  for  teaching  purposes  let  us 
suppose  the  period  is  that  of  Colonization  and  the  Struggle 
for  Supremacy  in  North  America  in  American  history.  The 
general  organization  of  this  period  for  teaching  purposes  in 
the  senior  high  school  might  be  as  follows : 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON        237 

COLONIZATION  AND  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SUPREMACY  IN 
NORTH  AMERICA,  1607-1763 

A.  Seventeenth-century  southern  seaboard  settlements. 

B.  Seventeenth-century   settlements   in  the  eastern  sections  of 

the  colonies  north  of  Maryland. 

C.  The  back-country  settlements. 

D.  Spanish  and  French  settlements  and  activities. 

E.  French  and  Indian  Wars. 

F.  Cross-section  view  of  colonial  life  about  1763. 

Suppose  now  that  one  desires  to  organize  topic  F,  ^Xross- 
section  view  of  colonial  life  about  1763,"  for  day-by-day 
teaching  purposes.  This  would  involve  more  detail  than  any 
other  phase  of  the  work  thus  far  discussed.  The  form  given  on 
pages  238-243  has  been  used  by  the  writer  with  results  com- 
mensurate with  the  efforts  required  to  make  it. 

The  advantages  to  the  teacher  of  having  an  entire  course  in 
the  form  of  the  one  topic  illustrated  above  are  worth  the  time  it 
takes  to  do  the  work  of  arranging  it  in  this  form.  Cln  the  first 
place  day-by-day  assignments  can  be  made  with  definiteness  and 
dispatch,  since  the  first  column  contains  exactly  what  he  desires 
to  teach  and  the  second  the  necessary  reference  material  on 
each  topic.  The  numbering  will  facilitate  matters  here  because 
the  reference  number  is  the  same  in  each  case  as  the  topic  in 
the  first  column  on  which  it  contains  material.  Inasmuch  as  the 
number  of  pages  in  a  reference  is  always  given,  the  teacher 
will  know  just  how  much  the  student  is  expected  to  read. 

Another  advantage  of  this  form  for  the  teacher's  daily 
lesson  plans  is  that  it  is  accumulative.  For  example,  should 
the  teacher  find  better  references  and  illustrative  materials 
as  he  goes  over  the  field  from  time  to  time,  there  is  always 
space  to  include  them  where  they  belong.  Furthermore, 
the  teacher  will  often  on  completing  a  lesson  think  of  things 
he  might  have  done.  If  these  are  inserted  in  their  proper  place, 
he  can  benefit  by  them  the  next  time  he  teaches  the  lesson. 


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244 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  AND  LESSON        245 

The  advantage  of  having  all  the  main  features  of  the 
lesson  before  him  while  it  is  in  progress  is  one  not  to  be  over- 
looked. Teachers  sometimes  forget  to  do  just  what  they  have 
planned  for  a  particular  lesson.  If  the  dates-events,  person- 
ages, and  geographic  feature  which  he  wishes  to  emphasize  in 
each  lesson  are  before  him,  they  are  almost  sure  to  receive  the 
attention  due  them.  Furthermore  in  the  quiet  of  his  study 
hours  the  teacher  will  think  of  things  to  do  that  will  never 
come  on  the  spur  of  the  moment.  If  these  are  before  him  in 
their  proper  place  they  will  be  done  when  planned. 

ADDITIONAL  READING   MATTER 

Bishop,  Mildred  C,  and  Robinson,  Edward  K.  Practical  Map  Exer- 
cises in  Medieval  and  Modern  European  History.  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany, 1920. 

Bone,  H.  A.  Geographic  Factors  in  American  History.  Author,  Sioux 
City,  Iowa,  191 7. 

Committee  of  Seven.  "Value  of  Historical  Study,"  The  Study  of  His- 
tory in  Schools,  pp.  16  ff.   The  Macmillan  Company,  1899. 

Knowlton,  D.  C.  Illustrated  Topics  for  Ancient  History.  McKinley 
Pub.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1913. 

McKinley,  A.  E.  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History.  McKinley 
Pub.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  191 2. 

Tappan,  Eva  March.  Little  Book  of  Our  Country.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  1920.  Originally  published  by  the  Association  Press, 
347  Madison  Ave.,  New  York. 

Taylor,  R.  G.  Outlines  of  American  Industrial  History.  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College,  Manhattan,  Kansas,  191 S- 

Tryon,  R.  M.  "The  Organization  of  United  States  History  for  Teaching 
Purposes  in  Grades  Seven  and  Eight,"  Elementary  School  Journal, 
XVI  (1916),  247  ff. 

Tryon,  R.  M.,  and  Others.  "  Progressive  Requirements  in  American  His- 
tory for  Junior  and  Senior  High  Schools,"  School  Review,  XXVI 
(1918),  I  ff.,  also  Historical  Outlook,  IX  (1918),  442  ff. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER 

There  is  in  existence  a  considerable  amount  of  information 
relative  to  the  high-school  history  teacher  which  should  be  of 
interest  and  practical  value  to  the  beginner  in  the  field  and  to 
the  experienced  teacher  as  well,  since  it  deals  with  so  many 
phases  of  the  history  teacher's  professional  career.  As  con- 
sidered in  this  chapter  these  phases  relate  to  the  equipment 
of  a  high-school  history  teacher,  the  subjects  he  actually 
teaches,  the  measurement  of  his  efficiency,  himself  and  his 
methods  as  viewed  by  high-school  undergraduates  and  grad- 
uates, and  his  professional  library.  If  data  on  the  tangible 
rewards  of  the  high-school  history  teacher  were  not  so  difficult 
to  keep  up-to-date,  a  discussion  of  this  sort  might  with  pro- 
priety include  material  on  salary  schedules  in  the  various 
sections  of  the  country.  In  view,  however,  of  the  general 
dislocation  of  these  schedules  brought  about  by  the  World 
War  and  the  accompanying  high  cost  of  living,  it  does  not  seem 
worth  while  to  do  more  than  mention  the  subject  of  salary, 
even  though  it  is  and  must  remain^ a  consideration  of  great 
concern  to  all  history  teachers. 

The  Equipment  of  the  High-School  History 
Teacher 

It  is  quite  generally  agreed  that  on  beginning  his  career  a 
high-school  history  teacher  should  know  considerable  history 
and  have  a  few  ideas  concerning  the  best  methods  of  imparting 
his  knowledge  to  others.  To  these  two  phases  of  his  equipment 
one  might  apply  the  terms  "academic"  and  "professional." 

246 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      247 

There  was  a  time  when  many  people  felt  that  academic  equip- 
ment was  all  that  a  history  teacher  needed  in  order  to  succeed. 
While  a  few  individuals  still  believe  in  this  fallacious  doctrine, 
the  weight  of  opinion  now  is  in  favor  of  an  equipment  whfch 
slights  neither  the  academic  nor  the  professional.  There  has 
been  so  much  progress  toward  this  much-to-be-desired  goal 
in  recent  years  that  even  teachers  of  history  in  colleges  and 
universities  are  recommending  that  students  majoring  in  their 
department  with  a  view  to  teaching  the  subject  include  in 
their  preparatory  work  a  liberal  amount  of  professional  train- 
ing. The  very  general  present-day  interest  in  the  professional 
equipment  of  the  high-school  history  teacher  is  evidenced  by 
the  number  of  courses  in  the  teaching  of  history  that  have 
recently  appeared  in  colleges  and  universities.  Only  a  few 
years  ago  these  courses  were  exceptions,  while  now  there  is 
scarcely  an  institution  in  the  country  which  makes  any  pretense 
at  the  training  of  teachers  that  does  not  offer  one  or  more 
courses  in  the  teaching  of  history  some  time  during  a  school  year. 
There  has  been  much  written  during  the  past  ten  years  on 
what  the  academic  equipment  of  high-school  history  teachers 
should  be.  Among  these  discussions  there  is  one  that  is  more 
or  less  authoritative.  This  is  a  report  on  "The  Certification 
of  High-School  Teachers  of  History,"  made  to  the  Mississippi 
Valley  Historical  Association  in  1913.^  This  committee  set 
down  certain  specific  academic  requirements  in  social  science 
for  prospective  high-school  history  teachers.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  A  college  student  intending  to  teach  history  in  the  high  school 
should  specialize  enough  "to  understand  the  scope  of  the  subject, 
to  know  something  of  its  methods  and  materials,  and  to  be  able 
to  read  independently  and  intelligently  along  the  lines  of  his 
teaching. 

2.  The  prospective  high-school  history  teacher  should  devote 
from  about  one  fourth  to  one  third  of  his  time  in  college  to  the 

1  Published  in  full  in  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  IV,  i69ff. 


248  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

study  of  history.     In  points  or  semester  hours  this  would  mean 
from  25  to  40  out  of  an  aggregate  of  120. 

3.  In  addition  to  the  25  to  40  points  given  to  history  proper, 
the  prospective  history  teacher  should  devote  some  time  to  such 
closely  related  subjects  as  political  economy,  poHtical  science,  and 
sociology. 

4.  The  history  courses  should  include :  (i)  one  or  more  elemen- 
tary courses  such  as  a  survey  of  some  European  field,  ancient, 
medieval,  modem,  or  English,  and  a  general  course  in  American 
history  to  be  required  of  all  prospective  history  teachers ;  (2)  ad- 
vanced courses  covering  the  whole  field  of  history  or  any  section; 
(3)  a  pro-seminary  course  in  which  method  and  point  of  view 
are  taught. 

5.  The  elementary  courses  should  require  not  more  than  12 
points,  the  advanced  courses  about  20  points,  and  the  pro-seminary 
not  over  6  points. 

The  sanity  and  reasonableness  of  these  recommendations  are 
their  chief  characteristics.  The  great  difficulty  in  their  prac- 
tical application  is  the  fact  that  so  many  young  people  are 
candidates  for  high-school  history  positions  on  graduating  who 
had  no  intention  of  teaching  on  entering  college.  Since  so 
many  of  these  well-meaning  young  people  discover  what  they 
actually  want  to  do  so  late  in  their  college  career,  the  problem 
of  satisfactorily  administering  any  recommendations  is  next 
to  impossible.  One  redeeming  feature,  however,  in  the 
situation  as  it  applies  to  those  who  decide  late  in  their 
college  career  that  they  want  to  teach  history  in  the  high 
school  is  the  fact  that  most  colleges  require  for  graduation  a 
specific  amount  of  work  in  some  one  or  two  departments. 
Hence,  if  the  student  whose  major  subject  is  history  suddenly 
decides,  upon  graduating,  to  seek  a  position  to  teach  history 
in  some  high  school,  he  is  not  wholly  unprepared  in  the 
academic  phase  of  the  subject.  The  unfortunate  phase  of 
the  matter  is,  as  will  be  shown  later,  that  even  though  the 
prospective  teacher  is  actually  prepared  to  teach  history  he  will 
probably  be  called  upon  to  teach  a  number  of  other  subjects 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      249 

as  well,  in  all  of  which  he  will  not  be  equally  well  prepared. 
And  more  unfortunately  for  history  than  for  some  of  the  other 
subjects,  a  teacher  who  has  specialized  in  college  in  a  field 
unrelated  to  history  will  be  asked  to  teach  history,  the  idea 
being  that  anyone  who  can  read  the  adopted  textbook  from 
day  to  day  can  teach  the  subject^  Fortunately  such  wholly 
unprepared  individuals  cannot  teach  history  in  some  states, 
since  a  certificate  in  each  subject  is  required^  While  the 
ability  to  make  a  specified  grade  on  a  formal  examination  is 
not  absolute  proof  of  adequate  academic  equipment  in  history, 
it  does  indicate  that  the  individual  who  is  able  to  make  a 
satisfactory  grade  has  some  knowledge  of  the  subject  even 
though  he  may  never  have  studied  college  history. 

Hand  in  hand  with  academic  training  and  growth  in  his- 
torical knowledge  should  go  professional  training  and  growth. 
This  means  that  the  prospective  history  teacher  must  devote 
some  time  to  learning  how  to  teach  history  before  going  out 
to  practice  on  helpless  high-school  youths.  It  also  means  that 
after  entering  upon  one's  career  as  a  history  teacher  one  must 
continue  to  read  the  professional  literature  on  the  subject. 
Too  many  high-school  history  teachers  cross  the  dead  line  and 
die  at  the  top.  That  is,  they  are  teaching  as  they  taught  ten 
years  ago.  Their  defense  of  their  methods  is  the  familiar 
one  of  long  use.  While  in  itself  this  might  be  a  just  defense, 
the  possibility  always  exists  that  there  are  somewhere  in  the 
literature  of  the  subject  descriptions  of  more  up-to-date  and 
effective  ways  of  doing  the  thing,  of  which  the  teacher,  who 
is  not  up  to  the  minute  in  the  professional  reading,  is  ignorant. 
Hence  the  attempted  justification  of  his  methods  on  the  basis 
of  long  use  becomes  an  excuse  for  having  died  at  the  pinnacle 
of  his  career  which  he  reached  during  his  younger  days. 

The  amount  and  character  of  the  professional  training 
which  prospective  high-school  history  teachers  should  have 
are  unsettled  questions.  The  committee  referred  to  above  said 
that  where  from  25  to  40  points  of  a  possible  120  were  devoted 


250  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

to  history,  from  2  to  4  of  these  points  should  include  noetbods 
of  teaching  the  subject.  In  terms  of  months  this  would  be 
about  three  out  of  a  college  course  of  thirty-six  months  in 
duration.  To  those  who  employ  college  graduates  to  teach 
history  in  the  high  school,  this  small  amount  of  time  devoted 
to  strictly  professional  training  during  the  preparatory  stage 
of  the  teacher's  career  is  wholly  unsatisfactory.  Speaking 
approximately,  these  individuals  would  increase  the  foregoing 
points  fivefold  or  sixfold.  In  other  words,  they  would  demand 
that  not  less  than  one  sixth  of  the  prospective  history  teacher's 
time  in  college  be  spent  on  the  professional  phase  of  his 
equipment. 

Granting  that  the  high-school  teacher  in  preparation,  whether 
for  junior  or  senior  high-school  teaching,  is  willing  to  spend 
ori^.-foiu;th  of  his  time  in  college  on  academic  equipment  and 
one  sixth  on  professional,,  the  question  of  the  content  of  the 
courses  he  will  be  expected  to  take  along  both  of  these  lines 
is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  The  report  on  ^^The  Certifi- 
cation of  High-School  Teachers  of  History"^  answered  this 
question  in  a  general  way.  Such  broad  statements,  however, 
do  not  always  secure  the  desired  results.  What  is  needed  most 
at  the  present  time  are  courses  in  history  planned  and  taught 
with  a  view  to  preparing  young  people  to  teach  high-school 
history.  As  now  planned  and  taught  most  college  courses  exist 
more  for  the  sake  of  the  subject,  histoiy,  than  for  the  sake  of 
the  students  pursuing  them.  A  change  of  emphasis  is  needed. 
Courses  for  prospective  teachers  should  seek  both  their  content 
and  their  general  organization  in  the  prevalent  high-school 
history  courses.  In  other  words,  instead  of  forcing  students 
into  highly  specialized  courses  which,  for  the  lack  of  time,  make 
it  impossible  to  cover  during  one's  college  career  more  than  a 
limited  amount  of  the  material  found  in  present-day  high-school 
history  courses,  it  would  be  far  better  to  make  it  possible  for 
them  to  study  in  college  all  of  the  fields  of  history  which  they 

1  See  p.  247. 


THE  PIIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      251 

will  actually  have  to  teach.  For  example,  the  present  tend- 
ency in  the  junior  high  school  is  to  include  courses  in  the 
European  beginnings  of  American  history  and  in  American  his- 
tory proper,  and  in  the  senior  high  school,  courses  in  modern 
European  history  and  American  history.  Now  it  is  evident 
that. prospective  teachers  cannot  cover  each  of  these  fields  in 
the  time  they  have  for  history  during  their  college  careers 
if  they  have  nothing  but  specialized  courses  offered  them.  To 
meet  the  actual  needs  of  these  people  colleges  should  offer  them 
three  one-year  courses,  one  devoted  to  early  European  history, 
one  to  modern  European  history,  and  one  to  American  history. 
This  arrangement  would  make  it  possible  for  history  teachers 
in  training  to  cover  in  a  unified  and  connected  way  during 
their  college  careers  all  of  the  field  of  history  which  they 
will  subsequently  be  called  upon  to  teach.  These  courses 
would  furnish  teachers  with  a  fund  of  information  that  they 
could  actually  use,  instead  of  turning  them  out  with  a  body 
of  technical,  unconnected,  and  highly  specialized  historical 
knowledge  which  they  find  to  their  dismay  on  entering  upon 
their  teaching  careers  that  they  cannot  use.  Scores  of  teachers 
have  said  to  the  writer  that,  on  leaving  college  with  a  feeling 
that  they  were  well  equipped  in  subject  matter  because  of  the 
number  of  courses  taken  in  history,  they  found  that  they 
really  had  to  learn  a  new  body  of  material  before  they  could 
teach  what  a  modern  high-school  history  department  demands. 
Of  course  their  training  in  college  history  facilitated  the  learn- 
ing of  this  new  body  of  knowledge  and  for  this  reason  was 
not  wholly  lost.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  it  would  seem 
much  better  for  the  prospective  history  teacher  to  prepare  on 
things  he  will  actually  teach  rather  than  to  learn  them  after 
beginning  his  teaching  career. 

The  present  situation  with  reference  to  the  content  of  the 
professional  courses  to  be  taken  by  the  high-school  history 
teacher  in  training  is  more  hopeful  than  the  one  relating  to  the 
academic  studies.    On  the  whole,  it  is  fairly  well  agreed  that 


252  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  time  to  be  spent  on  professional  equipment  should  be 
divided  about  equally  between  general  courses  in  education 
and  special  courses  in  the  teaching  of  history,  including  prac- 
tice teaching.  While  the  content  of  the  courses  in  education 
is  by  no  means  uniform  the  country  over,  or  satisfactory  to 
those  administering  them,  there  are  hopeful  signs  for  better- 
ment even  along  this  line.  Most  of  the  courses  in  the  teaching 
of  history  are  too  new  to  possess  the  attribute  of  finality. 
To  assist  those  interested  in  them  there  exist  certain  recom- 
mendations of  another  committee  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
Historical  Association.^  This  committee  proposes  three  types 
of  work  of  a  professional  nature  as  it  relates  to  the  field  of 
history.  Recognizing  the  fact  that  most  of  the  courses  in 
history  which  teachers  have  been  obliged  to  take  in  the 
university  are  sections  of  the  field  somewhat  remote  from  the 
high-school  division  of  the  subject,  and  therefore  do  not  give 
close  acquaintance  with  the  high-school  material  and  field, 
the  committee  suggests  a  course  for  students  at  the  end  of 
their  last  year  in  college  which  will  give  them  a  closer  acquaint- 
ance with  the  content  and  material  of  the  high-school  field  of 
history.  Besides  this  course  the  committee  recommends  one 
in  the  teaching  of  history  and  one  in  practice  teaching.  In 
the  teaching  course  the  committee  would  have  some  consider- 
ation given  to  each  of  the  following  topics:  the  general 
purposes  of  the  high  school  and  the  values  of  the  study  of 
history  in  their  bearing  on  these ;  the  place  of  history  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  high  school,  together  with  an  inquiry  as  to 
the  scope  and  content  of  high-school  units  of  history;  the 
special  demands  made  by  the  subject  of  history  on  the 
teacher ;  what  it  means  to  study  a  history  lesson ;  the  use  of 
the  textbook ;  practice  work  in  assigning  a  textbook  lesson ; 
the  use  of  source  material  in  the  high  school ;  practice  work  in 
assigning  lessons  in  source  material ;  collateral  reading — what 

1  "  Certification  of  High-School  Teachers  of  History,"  History  Teacher's 
Magazine y  ^ \,  \tfi^. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      253 


to  use  and  how  to  use  it ;  geography's  relation  to  history — maps 
and  map  work ;  pictures — what  to  use  and  how  to  use  them ; 
practice  work  in  assigning  a  lesson  on  picture  material ;  the 
possibilities  of  written  work,  including  uses  of  the  blackboard ; 
the  history  recitation;  special  problems  of  method  presented 
by  special  phases  of  the  subject ;  devices  for  arousing  interest ; 
the  first  recitations  of  new  year — their  special  problems  and 
opportunities ;  formation  of  plan  of  semester  work  in  any  one 
field  of  high-school  history ;  reports  on  observation  work ;  and 
practice  work  in  conducting  a  recitation.^ 

The  most  directly  beneficial  phase  of  the  professional  prepa- 
ration of  the  teacher  in  training  is  practice  teaching,  providing 
it  is  done  under  favorable  conditions  and  expert  direction. 
While  colleges  and  universities  are  slowly  coming  to  recognize 
the  value  of  this  sort  of  training,  they  do  not  as  a  rule  require 
it  of  their  graduates  who  enter  the  teaching  profession.  This 
being  the  case,  it  becomes  necessary  to  convince  prospective 
teachers  of  the  practical  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  well- 
directed  course  in  practice  teaching. 

While  there  have  been  no  exhaustive  studies  of  the  results  of 
practice  teaching  on  teaching  efficiency,  the  meager  data  so 
far  collected  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  in  the  judg- 
ment of  superintendents  of  schools  and  of  high-school  teachers 
who  successfully  completed  a  practice  course  during  their  pre- 
paratory period  such  work  is  of  great  value.  Superintendents 
are  of  the  opinion  that  "one  semester  of  high-school  practice 
teaching  under  a  competent  critic  produces  a  more  successful 
teacher  than  does  two,  three,  or  even  four  years  of  schoolroom 
experience  of  the  teacher  not  so  trained."^  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  in  the  judgment  of  some  superintendents  practice 
teaching  is  a  short-cut  route  to  success.    Since  it  is  becoming 

1  Report,  op.  cit.  p.  152. 

2  Childs,  "  The  Results  of  Practice  Teaching  on  Teaching  Efficiency," 
in  Practice  Teaching  for  Teachers  in  Secondary  Schools,  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin  (1917),  No.  29,  p.  35. 


2  54  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

more  and  more  difficult  for  young  people  with  no  first-hand 
experience  with  teaching  problems  to  secure  desirable  positions 
upon   graduating   from   college,   information   concerning   the 

.  practical  value  of  well-directed  experience  with  actual  class- 
room situations  should  be  given  them  early  in  their  college 
careers.  This  is  very  necessary,  since  practice  teaching  cannot 
be  done  successfully  without  certain  prerequisites  which  must 
be  taken  care  of  during  the  early  part  of  one's  college  course. 
There  is  an  important  phase  of  the  history  teacher's  equip- 
ment not  classed  as  either  academic  or  professional.  For 
want  of  a  better  name  let  us  call  it  mental  and  temgfira- 

(/ mental  tr^s  and  characteristics.  It  goes  without  saying  that 
no  teacher  can  teach  what  he  does  not  know  and  that  the 
successful  teacher  of  anything  must  be  able  to  teach.  True 
as  these  statements  are,  they  are  not  the  only  prerequisites 
to  the  all-round  equipment  of  a  history  teacjier.  Certain 
qualities  which  are  either  innate  or  acquired  through  conscious 
striving  must  be  combined  with  academic  and  professional  j* 
equipment   before   one  has   other   than   a   mediocre   history  I 

-  teacher.    Some  of  these  qualities  are  common  sense,  character,, 
J  aptitude,  sympathy,  vivacity,  open-mindedness,  intellectual  and! 
political   honesty,   enthusiasm   for   history,   optimism,   sound  i 
judgment,   vivid   imagination,   copious   supply   of   clear   and  ^ 
simple  language,  firmness,  impartiality,  cheerfulness,  pleasant-  '. 
ness,  and  sincerity.     These  characteristics  might  be  termed 
likable   ones   in   teachers.     They   are   named   by   high-school 
students  when  they   are   asked   to   designate   the   traits  in 
teachers  which  make  the  strongest  appeal  to  them.    Table  VIII 
summarizes  a  study  along  this  line  which  shows  the  relative 
importance  of  ten  of  these  qualities  in  the  minds  of  three 
groups  of  students. 

In  a  more  recent  study  than  the  one  summarized  in  Table 
VIII  "willingness  to  help  me"  was  mentioned  130  times  by 
550  high-school  students  in  response  to  the  request,  "As  you 
think  over  the  teachers  who  have  been  or  still  are  most  helpful 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER 


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2  56  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

to  you,  tell  the  qualities  in  them  which  make  the  strongest 
appeal  to  you."^  Patience  v/as  mentioned  85  times  by  these 
same  students;  kindness,  80  times;  clearness,  35;  sense  of 
humor,  32;  understanding  of  students,  24;  firmness,  21; 
impartiality,  24 ;  cheerfulness  and  pleasantness,  19  each ;  sin- 
cerity, 14;  sympathy,  16;  and  ability  to  make  work  interest- 
ing, 21.  The  writer's  own  investigations  along  this  same  line 
with  history  teachers  especially  in  mind  reveal  facts  relative 
to  the  personal  and  social  qualities  of  teachers  similar  to 
the  foregoing  ones.  On  one  occasion  he  asked  150  high-school 
graduates  to  describe  the  history  teacher  who  had  helped  them 
most  to  an  appreciation  and  an  understanding  of  history.  In  the 
tabulation  of  the  responses  to  this  request  the  following  terms 
were  used  over  and  over  again :  astounding  vitality,  impartial- 
ity, broad-mindedness,  friendliness  and-kindness  to  everyone,  de- 
sire to  help,  keen  sense  of  humor,  attractive  personality,  pleasing 
personality,  remarkable  personality,  pleasing  manner,  interest 
in  the  subject,  personal  interest  in  each  pupil,  delightful  sense 
of  humor,  enthusiasm  for  the  subject,  power  to  inspire  the  class, 
ambition  and  energy,  fairness  and  uprightness,  truthfulness  and 
exactness,  and  a  companionable  disposition.  All  these  personal 
and  social  qualities  in  a  teacher  assume  large  proportion  in  the 
minds  of  their  students.  The  truth  of  this  whole  matter  is  well 
summarized  by  Superintendent  Engleman  when  he  says : 

No  amount  of  learning  and  no  amount  of  "professional  training," 
though  each  is  a  sine  qua  non,  can  atone  for  a  lack  of  the  human 
touch,  and  the  virtues  which  endear  people  to  their  associates  in 
ordinary  walks  of  life.  The  most  scholarly  teachers,  employing 
the  most  skillful  methods,  measured  by  coldly  intellectual  standards, 
must  largely  fail  to  get  desired  results  if  they  fail  to  bring  or 
beget  the  right  emotional  atmosphere  in  the  schoolroom.  \^mo- 
tional  warmth  is  just  as  essential  to  the  growth  of  ideas  as  physical 
warmth  is  to  the  growth  of  plants.  Frost  is  as  much  to  be  avoided 
in  the  schoolroom  as  in  the  garden. 

^  Engleman,  A  Survey  of  the  Decatur  High  6'<:>^<7^/ (Decatur,  Illinois),  p.  23. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      257 

The  Subjects  History  Teachers  Teach 

One  would  naturally  suppose  that  history  teachers  teach 
history.  However,  such  is  not  the  case  in  altogether  too  many 
high  schools.  Investigations  of  rather  recent  date  in  Kansas, 
Maine,  and  Illinois  unearthed  some  rather  astounding  con- 
ditions along  this  line.  A  few  of  the  main  facts  revealed  by 
these  studies  will  give  prospective  history  teachers  some  idea 
of  the  conditions  they  are  likely  to  encounter  on  entering  upon 
their  anticipated  careers.  For  example,  conditions  in  Kansas 
around  19 14  as  shown  by  two  investigations  were  as  follows: 
But  43.7  per  cent  of  the  teachers  who  had  prepared  to  teach 
history  were  actually  teaching  the  subject.  Facing  this  fact, 
one  might  ask  with  propriety,  What  were  the  other  56.3  per 
cent  who  had  prepared  to  teach  history  teaching?  The 
answer  to  this  question  is  this,  Nearly  every  subject  in  a 
modern  high-school  curriculum,  ranging  in  number  from  two 
to  ten  a  teacher.^  Furthermore,  one  of  these  studies  in  which 
history  was  made  the  center  of  attention  revealed  the  startling 
fact  that  it  was  combined  with  twenty-seven  other  subjects, 
numbering  from  one  to  five  additional  ones  a  teacher.  The 
most  frequent  combinations  were  history  and  English,  149 
times  out  of  a  possible  420;  history  and  mathematics,  121 
times;  history  and  Latin,  94 ;  history  and  physics,  51  ;  history 
and  German,  39 ;  history  and  botany,  39.  It  was  also  dis- 
covered that  history  was  combined  with  a  single  subject  127 
times;  with  two  subjects,  164  times;  with  three  subjects,  76 
times;  with  four  subjects,  12  times;  and  with  five  subjects, 
once.^  On  the  basis  of  these  findings  one  must  conclude  that 
when  these  studies  were  made  conditions  in  Kansas  relative  to 
history  teaching  were  by  no  means  favorable  and  were  more 
or  less  discouraging  to  history  teachers  in  training. 

1  Josselyn,  Survey  of  Accredited  High  Schools,  p.  54. 

2  Steeper,  "  The  Status  of  History  Teaching  in  the  High  Schools  of 
Kansas,"  School  Reviewy  XXII,  191, 


2  58  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Kansas  is  not  alone  in  the  matter  of  conditions  unfavorable  to 
good  history  teaching  and  a  discouraging  outlook  to  those 
preparing  to  teach  the  subject.  In  a  study  of  the  history 
teachers  in  Maine  for  the  year  I9i3-i9i4it  was  discovered  that 
but  6  per  cent  of  156  teachers  in  90  high  schools  made  history 
teaching  a  specialty,  the  remaining  94  per  cent  devoting  only 
a  part  of  their  time  to  the  subject.  In  a  consideration  of  the 
matter  solely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  high  schools  it  was 
found  that  10  per  cent  of  those  reporting  employed  a  teacher 
to  teach  history  exclusively ;  14  per  cent  employed  him 
primarily  to  teach  history,  but  in  practice  he  often  had  to 
teach  two  other  subjects  as  well ;  and  76  per  cent  gave  the 
history  to  people  who  happened  to  have  room  for  it  on  their 
programs.^  In  Illinois  at  about  the  same  date,  in  but  95  out 
of  483  high  schools  was  history  taught  alone.  In  171  schools 
it  was  taught  along  with  one  other  subject ;  in  118,  along  with 
two  other  subjects;  in  46,  along  with  three  other  subjects; 
and  in  42,  along  with  four  or  more  other  subjects.  The  follow- 
ing were  some  of  the  peculiar  and  unfortunate  combinations: 

1.  History,  zoology,  physics,  chemistry. 

2 .  History,  Latin,  physics,  German,  physiography,  astronomy. 

3.  History,  physical  geography,  drawing,  botany,  domestic 
science,  zoology. 

4.  History,  physics,  chemistry,  business  law,  civics,  economics. 

5.  History,  science,  arithmetic,  geography,  civics,  algebra. 
Mr.  E.   R.   Say  re,   who   made   this   study,   commented   as 

follows  on  the  combinations  he  found: 

These  examples  could  be  multiplied  indefinitely,  for  they  were 
picked  almost  at  random  from  the  reports  of  the  first  fifty  schools 
which  I  examined,  and  they  were  not  chosen  from  among  high 
schools  having  only  three  or  four  teachers  but  from  some  having 
as  many  as  twelve.  ^ 

^  Lewis,  "  The  Teaching  of  History  in  Maine,"  History  Teacher's  Maga- 
zine, V,  159. 

^Proceedings  of  the  High  School  Conference  (November,  1913),  p.  274. 
University  of  Illinois,    School  of  Education. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      259 

The  most  discouraging  fact  revealed  in  this  investigation 
was  that  nine  tenths  of  the  teachers  who  taught  history  and 
three  or  more  other  subjects  had  no  degree ;  the  idea  seem- 
ingly being  that  the  less  preparation  a  teacher  has  the  more 
subjects  he  can  teach. 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  statistics  the  following  suggestions 
to  history  teachers  in  preparation  seem  relevant:  (i)  The 
chances  are  few  that  the  inexperienced  teacher  will  be  called 
upon  to  teach  history  only — one  in  twenty  in  some  states. 
(2)  The  combination  standing  first  is:  history  and  English — 
an  English  teacher  teaching  English  and  history,  or  vice 
versa.  (3)  A  combination  of  history  and  mathematics  seems 
to  stand  second  and  a  combination  of  history  and  Latin  third. 
(4)  One  desiring  to  teach  high-school  history  on  completing 
a  college  course  should  be  prepared  to  conduct  classes  in 
more  than  one  subject — the  safe  plan  being  to  make  some 
preparation  in  at  least  three  subjects. 

In  order  to  improve  the  discouraging  conditions  now  existing 
in  the  matter  of  the  subjects  other  than  history  which  history 
teachers  teach,  those  already  in  the  field  should  demand  on  all 
possible  occasions  that  they  be  permitted  to  devote  their  entire 
time  to  the  teaching  of  their  chosen  subject.  If  such  demands 
can  be  made  sufficiently  emphatic  and  receive  the  response  they 
deserve,  the  near  future  will  not  see  32.5  per  cent  of  the 
teachers  of  high- school  history  in  a  state  unprepared  to  teach 
the  subject,  and  56.3  per  cent  of  those  who  prepared  to  teach 
history  teaching  other  subjects,  as  was  the  case  in  Kansas 
when  Josselyn  made  his  report. 

Measuring  the  High-School  History  Teacher's 
Efficiency 

It  is  most  important  that  the  teacher  know  as  much  about 
the  standards  whereby  he  is  to  be  judged  as  the  individual  ad- 
ministering them.  This  being  true,  it  becomes  necessary  for  pro- 
spective as  well  as  actual  teachers  to  give  some  consideration 


26o  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

to  failure  and  success  in  teaching  and  to  the  standards 
by  which  each  is  determined  and  more  or  less  accurately 
measured.  Since  so  many  teachers  fail  (about  42  per  cent) 
during  their  initial  year,  the  problem  of  failure  and  some  of  its 
causes  furnishes  a  very  profitable  field  of  investigation  for 
beginners.  Fortunately  some  concrete  data  are  in  existence 
on  this  subject.  In  191 5  Buellesfield  made  a  study  of  causes 
of  failure  among  teachers.  There  were  included  in  this  study 
4848  cases  in  116  school  systems.  The  seven  chief  causes 
of  failure  in  the  order  of  importance  were  weakness  in  dis- 
cipline, lack  of  judgment,  deficiency  in  scholarship,  poor 
methods,  daily  preparation  insufficient,  lack  of  industry,  and 
lack  of  sympathy.    The  complete  list  is  given  in  Table  IX. 

The  diagnostic  value  of  the  material  in  Table  IX  both  to 
experienced  and  inexperienced  teachers  is  considerable,  for  it 
will  be  observed  that  nearly  all  the  causes  of  failure  listed 
therein  are  directly  under  one's  control.  A  self-inventory 
now  and  then  with  the  undesirable  traits  and  characteristics 
iiiscovered  by  Buellesfield  clearly  in  mind  would  in  all  prob- 
ability be  worth  any  teacher's  making.  To  make  sure  that 
such  a  self-examination  is  in  the  main  correct,  one  would  do 
well  to  seek  the  assistance  of  others,  for  it  is  quite  conceivable 
that  one  might  lack  sympathy,  use  poor  methods,  be  deceitful, 
too  frivolous,  unprofessional,  and  untidy  in  dress  and  never 
discover  the  fact  without  the  aid  of  a  second  party. 

Important  as  it  is  that  history  teachers  know  wherein  they 
are  failing,  it  is  equally  important  that  they  know  something 
of  the  elements  of  success  or  qualities  of  merit  on  which  their 
success  is  rated.  While  there  is  somewhat  of  a  general  agree- 
ment among  school  administrators  and  supervisors  on  the 
fundamental  qualities  of  teaching  efficiency,  there  is  no  one 
scheme  for  measuring  this  efficiency  that  meets  with  general 
approval.  To  acquaint  the  teacher  with  the  various  qualities 
and  at  the  same  time  to  give  him  an  idea  of  their  relative 
importance  there  is  probably  no  better  available  information 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      261 


TABLE    IX.     CAUSES    OF    FAILURE    AMONG    TEACHERS  1 


Causes  of  Failure 


Chief 
Cause 


Contribu- 
tory Cause 


Total 


Weakness  in  discipline 

Lacked  judgment 

Deficient  in  scholarship 

Poor  methods 

Daily  preparation  insufficient 

Lacked  industry 

Lacked  sympathy 

Too  nervous 

Deficient  in  social  qualities 

Unprofessional  attitudes 

Unattractive  appearance 

Poor  health 

Lacked  culture  and  refinement 

Uninterested  in  work  of  teaching 

Too  many  outside  interests 

Immoral 

Too  frivolous 

Disloyalty 

Could  not  control  temper 

Deceitful 

Untidy  in  dress 

Remained  too  long 

Too  immature 

Wrong  religious  vievirs  (for  that  community)  . 
Attended  places  of  questionable  amusement 
Keeping  company  with  High  School  boys  . 
Use  of  tobacco 


114 

45 
42 

41 
23 
19 
17 
15 
15 
14 
12 

II 

ID 

ID 

ID 

9 

9 

7 
7 
7 
5 
3 
2 
I 
I 
o 


54 
86 
40 
79 
51 
28 

45 
30 
27 
28 
29 

13 
28 
26 

23 
I 

17 
16 

23 
19 
14 
17 
13 
3 

o 
I 


168 

131 

82 
120 
74 
47 
62 

45 
42 

42 
41 
25 
39 
36 
33 
II 

26 

25 

30 

26 

21 

22 

16 

5 

9 

I 

I 


than  that  given  by  Boyce  in  his  Methods  for  Measuring 
Teachers'  Efficiency.  Table  X  contains  a  summary  of  Boyce's 
study. 

The  practical  use  to  be  made  of  the  material  in  Table  X 
is  the  same  as  that  on  failure  and  its  causes.  The  comparative 
rank  of  each  quality  should  assist  a  teacher  in  distinguishing 

^  "  Causes  of  Failure  among  T^.d^zYi^x^^'''  Educational  Administration  and 
Supervision^  I,  451. 


262 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


TABLE   X.    THE    QUALITIES    WHICH   MAKE    AN    EFFECTIVE 
TEACHER,  AND  THEIR  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  i 


Qualities 

I.  Personal  equipment. 

1.  General  appearance 

2.  Health 

3.  Voice 

4.  Intellectual  capacity 

5.  Initiative  and  self-reliance    .... 

6.  Adaptability  and  resourcefulness     . 

7.  Accuracy 

8.  Industry 

9.  Enthusiasm  and  optimism    .... 

10.  Integrity  and  sincerity 

11.  Self-control 

12.  Promptness 

13.  Tact 

14.  Sense  and  justice 

II.  Social  and  professional  equipment. 

15.  Academic  preparation 

16.  Professional  preparation       .... 

17.  Grasp  of  subject  matter 

18.  Understanding  of  children  .... 

19.  Interest  in  the  life  of  the  school  .    . 

20.  Interest  in  the  life  of  the  community 

21.  Ability  to  meet  and  interest  patrons 

22.  Interest  in  lives  of  pupils     .... 

23.  Cooperation  and  loyalty 

24.  Professional  interest  and  growth 

25.  Daily  preparation 

26.  Use  of  English 

III.  School  management. 

27.  Care  of  light,  heat,  and  ventilation  . 

28.  Neatness  of  room 

29.  Care  of  routine 

30.  Discipline  (governing  sTcill)      .    .    . 


1  See  Fourteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education^  Pt.  II,  p.  68.  The  table  reads  :  General  development  of  the 
pupils  ranks  first  in  a  list  of  45  qualities ;  growth  of  pupils  in  subject  matter 
ranks  second,  etc. 


r 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      263 
TABLE  X  (Continued) 


Qualities 


Rank 


IV.  Technique  of  teaching. 

31.  Definiteness  and  clearness  of  aim     . 

32.  Skill  in  habit  formation 

33.  Skill  in  stimulating  thought       .     .     . 

34.  Skill  in  teaching  how  to  study       .     , 

35.  Skill  in  questioning       ...... 

36.  Choice  of  subject  matter 

37.  Organization  of  subject  matter      .    . 

38.  Skill  and  care  in  assignment     .    .    , 

39.  Skill  in  motivatijig  work 

40.  Attention  to  individual  needs    .    .    , 
V.  Results. 

41.  Attention  and  response  of  the  class 

42.  Growth  of  pupils  in  subject  matter  , 

43.  General  development  of  pupils     .    , 

44.  Stimulation  of  community     ... 

45.  Moral  influence , 


important  from  unimportant  qualities.  Since,  when  relatively 
considered,  such  items  as  definiteness  and  clearness  of  aim, 
skill  in  habit  formation,  skill  in  stimulating  thought,  choice 
of  subject  matter,  and  attention  and  response  of  the  class 
all  rank  high,  a  teacher  who  desires  a  corresponding  rank  will 
give  these  qualities  considerable  attention.  On  a  close  examina- 
tion of  the  table  it  will  be  found  that  qualities  relating  to 
results  and  the  technic  of  teaching  with  few  exceptions  uni- 
formly rank  high  in  the  scale  values. 

Before  a  supervisor  can  scientifically  rate  a  history  teacher 
according  to  Boyce's  qualities  of  merit,  he  must  devise  some 
scheme  to  view  the  effects  of  the  teacher's  work  on  the  students. 
One  may  get  at  this  matter  concretely  from  two  angles— the 
one  on  the  basis  of  what  the  students  know  and  can  do,  the 
other  on  the  basis  of  their  attitude  toward  history.  The  first 
angle  involves  the  whole  matter  of  tests  and  standards  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  VIII  and  the  second  a  personal  statement 


264  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

on  the  part  of  the  pupils  as  to  why  they  appreciate  or  fail  to 
appreciate  history.  Both  of  these  angles  would  furnish  con- 
crete data  on  the  qualities  of  merit  ranked  so  high  in  Boyce's 
scale  of  values. 

Since  the  matter  of  tests  and  standards  has  been  considered 
elsewhere,  the  discussion  may  pass  at  once  to  the  second  angle 
of  the  matter  under  discussion.  From  data  that  the  writer 
has  collected  from  high-school  graduates  as  to  why  they  failed 
to  appreciate  history  while  in  high  school  it  appears  that  the 
teacher  is  the  chief  cause.  Judged  wholly  from  the  effect  of 
their  teaching  on  the  girls  who  wrote  the  following,  the  two 
teachers  in  question  would  fall  rather  low  in  the  scale  of 
efficiency : 

During  almost  four  years  I  did  not  appreciate  history  and  I  do 
not  feel  that  I  was  altogether  to  blame  for  it.  My  first  half  year 
things  around  me  were  so  new  (for  it  was  my  first  year  in  high 
school)  that  it  was  hard  for  me  to  really  get  down  to  hard  solid 
work.  Then  the  teacher  I  had  didn't  understand  people  of  our  ages 
and  consequently  was  a  little  hard  on  us.  He  was  excitable  and 
very  inconsistent  in  marking  and  every-day  recitations.  The  classes 
were  so  noisy  all  the  time  that  one  could  hardly  keep  one's  mind  on 
the  work.  My  mind  was  not  led  into  the  paths  which  would  tend 
to  interest  me,  for  in  fact  it  was  not  guided  at  all  but  allowed  to 
drift,  and  gradually  the  little  interest  which  I  had  had  in  history 
from  grammar  school  was  blotted  out,  and  by  the  end  of  my  first 
half  year  I  found  all  appreciation  of  history  gone. 

Well  do  I  remember  that  three-thirty  history  class.  Our  high- 
school  building  was  very  small  and  we  had  our  history  class  down 
on  the  main  floor  in  the  little  botany  room,  which  was  a  close, 
stuffy  httle  room.  Our  history  teacher  was  an  elderly  man,  very 
heavy  set,  with  large  flabby  cheeks.  He  had  been  teaching  a  great 
many  years  and  had  gotten  into  a  rut.  He  used  no  devices  to 
make  the  subject  interesting ;  day  after  day  we  recited  from  the 
text.  We  had  no  opportunity  for  an  informal  discussion  or  personal 
opinion.    Mr.  K.  called  on  us  alphabetically  and  went  down  the 


"^p 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      265 


list-  After  we  had  been  called  on  v;e  could  settle  back  in  our 
chairs.  It  seems  strange  that  one  should  not  appreciate  history 
for  the  mere  reason  that  one  disliked  the  teacher.  This  was  true. 
He  did  not  try  to  stir  any  interest  or  appreciation  of  the  subject 
whatever. 

The  writer  has  in  his  possession  many  statements  of  high- 
school  graduates  similar  in  tone  to  the  foregoing.  He  also  has 
an  equal  number  of  statements  which  give  the  other  side  of 
the  matter.  While  it  is  true  that  high-school  graduates  hold 
their  teachers  responsible  for  their  failure  to  appreciate  history, 
it  is  equally  true  that  when  these  same  individuals  appreciate 
and  like  their  high-school  history,  their  teachers  receive  due 
credit.  That  this  is  the  case  to  some  extent  at  least  is  evidenced 
by  the  following  statement  of  a  high-school  graduate  in  response 
to  the  request  to  write  a  brief  statement  on  why  she  liked 
history  in  the  high  school : 

I  liked  American  history  in  the  high  school  for  several  reasons. 
One  was  the  enthusiastic,  wide-awake,  and  charming  personahty  of 
my  instructor.  She  inspired  me  to  do  my  best.  When  one  is 
doing  good  work,  this  alone  will  make  the  work  interesting,  en- 
joyable, and  profitable.  Another  reason  was  the  interesting  way 
the  work  was  given.  We  read  from  our  texts  and  from  outside 
references.  She  did  not  ask  for  a  report  on  these,  but  would  ask 
a  question  which  we  would  have  to  figure  out,  putting,  together 
all  we  had  read,  what  we  knew  about  it,  and  any  information  which 
would  bear  on  the  subject.  In  other  words,  she  threw  it  into  the 
problematic  form.  We  found  out  what  x  and  y  were  and  gave  her 
the  solution.  She  had  us  also  read  historical  novels,  and  books  on 
the  Hfe  of  men,  as  Daniel  Boone,  and  then  we  made  as  interesting 
a  report  on  it  as  we  could.  We  were  given  free  rein  to  develop 
it  as  we  pleased.  This  was  very  interesting  to  me.  I  never  worked 
so  hard  in  my  life  as  I  did  trying  to  get  interesting  and  varied 
reports.  I  had  to  report  on  pioneer  life  of  the  children.  I  wrote 
it  in  novel  form  with  a  plot,  bringing  in  the  pioneer  Hfe,  the 
Indians,  and  some  historical  events.  We  had  several  papers  of  this 
type  to  work  out,  and  I  enjoyed  them  all.    We  also  had  to  keep 


2  66  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

notebooks  and  most  interesting  maps  and  charts.  She  was  full 
of  interesting  surprises  in  carrying  out  the  different  work.  We 
had  a  mock  trial  and  many  other  real-Hfe  demonstrations  and 
objective  work.  This  was  great  fun  and  very  good  for  us.  She  had 
contests  on  dates,  etc.,  when  the  boys  were  pitted  against  the  girls. 
This  I  think  was  the  most  fun  of  all.  She  varied  the  contests  : 
sometimes  she  would  give  dates  and  we  had  to  tell  everything  of 
importance  that  happened,  sometimes  she  would  give  results  and 
we  would  enumerate  the  causes,  etc.  All  in  all,  my  American 
history  in  the  high  school,  as  I  look  back  upon  it,  was  enjoyable, 
interesting,  likable,  and  profitable  work. 

If  a  student  likes  one  field  of  history  and  dislikes  another, 
the  teacher  is  often  held  responsible.  Judging  from  the  state- 
ments which  the  writer  has  collected,  the  field  of  history  itself 
is  not  always  a  sufficiently  impelling  force  in  causing  young 
people  to  like  or  dislike  the  subject.  In  no  case  did  the  same 
teacher  cause  pupils  to  like  one  field  and  dislike  another,  but 
in  many  cases  one  field  of  history  was  much  appreciated  under 
one  teacher  and  another  field  was  disliked  under  a  different 
teacher.  The  following  statement  is  but  one  of  many  illus- 
trating this  fact : 

I  liked  American  history  in  high  school  because  the  teacher  was 
a  very  cheerful  and  easy-going  person,  but  also  held  enough 
prestige  over  us  to  make  us  realize  her  position.  We  had  daily 
lessons  to  prepare  from  a  textbook,  but  always  recited  on  these 
lessons  in  quite  informal  discussions.  Any  material  that  we  might 
have  had  from  our  experiences  or  from  other  reading  was  con- 
sidered worth  while  as  long  as  it  pertained  to  the  lesson.  Not 
being  held  strictly  to  the  words  of  the  text,  giving  more  if  able, 
we  were  interested  in  reading  any  article  that  we  came  upon.  The 
facts  seemed  true  and  I  liked  them  because  they  related  to  our  own 
country.  Because  they  did  relate  to  our  own  country,  its  progress 
and  development,  they  seemed  worthy  of  careful  study.  While  I 
appreciated  this  particular  field  of  history,  I  did  not  care  about 
ancient  history.  This  field  seemed  not  well'  founded,  because  it 
was  so  old  and  primitive.  The  teacher  was  well  versed  in  her  subject, 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      267 

but  she  was  of  a  very  nervous  disposition,  and  this  more  or 
less  affected  her  work.  Her  method  was  the  textbook  method,  and 
she  held  us  strictly  to  the  text.  This  gave  no  chance  for  individual 
reflections  and  did  not  encourage  research  work.  Occasionally  Greek 
stories  were  given  us  as  reference  work,  but  the  attitude  toward 
this  was  much  different  than  toward  the  research  work  done  in 
American  history. 

High-School  History  Teachers  and  their  Methods 
as  viewed  by  their  students 

No  comprehensive  study  of  the  high-school  history  teacher 
from  the  pupil's  point  of  view  has  ever  been  made.  To  the 
writer's  knowledge  but  one  article  along  this  line  has  been 
published.^  Working  along  the  same  lines  suggested  in  this 
article  and  in  some  unpublished  material  in  the  possession  of 
its  author,  the  writer  has  collected  a  small  amount  of  data  on 
the  subject ;  not  enough,  however,  on  which  to  base  depend- 
able conclusions,  but  sufficient  to  indicate  how  a  number  of 
history  teachers  are  viewed  by  those  whom  they  have  taught. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  Engleman's  study 
made  on  the  general  subject  under  consideration  here.  This, 
it  will  be  recalled,  revealed  certain  mental,  personal,  and  social 
qualities  which  high-school  students  admire  in  their  teachers. 
Interesting  to  relate,  most  of  these  qualities  appear  in  the 
papers  of  high-school  graduates  when  they  are  asked  to  write 
especially  of  their  history  teachers.  As  revealed  in  the  one 
hundred  and  fifty  statements  that  the  writer  has  collected  from 
high-school  graduates  relative  to  their  high-school  history 
teachers  and  their  methods,  the  following  qualities  of  merit 
are  looked  upon  with  much  favor:  attractive  personality, 
broad-mindedness,  keen  sense  of  humor,  impartiality,  fairness, 
kindness,  interest  in  subject,  personal  interest  in  students,  pleas- 
ing manner,  and  much  vitality.  Here  is  how  one  girl  expressed 
her  appreciation  of  these  qualities  in  her  teacher  : 

1  Williams,  "  The  History  Teacher  as  viewed  by  the  History  Student," 
History  Teacher's  Magazine^  V,  260  if. 


268  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

The  teacher  I  had  for  medieval  and  modern  history  was  a 
wonder.  She  had  a  reputation  of  being  severe,  and  she  was,  but 
in  such  a  way  that  one  did  not  mind  it.  Her  idea  was  that  we 
were  all  there  to  help  each  other,  and  she  wanted  us  jiot  to  feel 
formal.  The  result  was  that  we  all  looked  forward  to  going  to  her 
class.  We  had  a  textbook  in  which  a  lesson  was  assigned  every 
day  except  when  we  had  reference  readings  in  other  history  books. 
These  references  were  always  about  the  subject  we  were  taking 
up  in  the  textbook.  Twice  or  three  times  a  week  we  had  one- 
word  tests,  which  we  wrote  in  our  notebooks.  These  were  collected 
and  kept  by  her.  The  rows  were  numbered,  and  the  odd  rows  took 
the  odd  questions  and  the  even  rows  the  even  questions.  These 
tests  were  given  to  see  if  we  had  read  our  text  or  reference.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  she  showed  us  how  to  study  to  get  the  most 
out  of  our  lessons  and  to  get  only  the  main  points.  After  these 
httle  quizzes  she  would  lecture  to  us.  She  might  have  four  points 
that  she  wanted  to  bring  out,  but  often  we  would  only  finish  two, 
because  we  would  become  so  interested  that  we  would  keep  asking 
questions,  and  as  she  had  traveled  a  great  deal  and  knew  her  subjects 
so  well,  she  could  always  answer  our  questions.  In  taking  up  the 
subject  of  religions,  she  gave  all  the  good  and  bad  points  impar- 
tially. She  was  very  broad-minded  and  could  se^  the  good  things  in 
every  religion.  She  knew  all  the  doctrines  of  all  the  sects,  and  even 
if  she  wasn't  a  member  of  a  certain  denomination,  she  knew  the 
doctrines  and  creed  better  than  some  of  the  students  who  were 
members.  She  gave  stereopticon  lectures  and  had  other  pictures, 
and  sometimes  she  had  original  documents  and  heirlooms  to 
show  us.  She  had  a  keen  sense  of  humor.  Often  we  laughed 
for  ten  minutes,  and  then  we  would  feel  more  like  settling  down  to 
work.  There  were  only  a  few  dates  that  she  wished  us  to  remember, 
and  these  were  made  easy  by  a  little  verse  or  something  similar. 
We  also  had  a  little  verse  to  help  us  remember  the  kings.  At 
the  end  of  the  semester  she  gave  out  a  set  of  questions  which 
required  quite  a  bit  of  reference  work  to  answer.  If  we  answered 
so  many  of  these  and  got  a  good  mark,  we  were  excused  from  the 
final.  As  a  result,  very  few  had  to  take  the  final  examination. 
She  said  that  she  could  tell  pretty  well  at  the  end  of  the  first 
month  those  who  were  sure  to  do  good  work,  just  by  our  attitude. 
She  was  very  fair  and  did  her  share  to  help  us  make  up  any  back 


r 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      269 


work.  Her  personal  appearance  was  always  without  a  fault.  She 
wore  quiet  tailored  clothes  and  absolutely  no  jewelry  except  a  plain 
ring  and  a  simple  pin  in  her  tie.  Everyone  in  her  class  admired 
her,  and  also  got  a  great  deal  out  of  the  course  under  her  direction. 

Besides  revealing  certain  definite  and  desirable  qualities  in 
history  teachers,  the  descriptions  by  high-school  graduates  of 
their  history  teacher  and  their  methods  of  procedure  throw 
much  light  on  some  other  phases  of  successful  history  teaching 
when  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  those  being  taught. 
For  example,  a  good  teacher  in  the  judgment  of  the  pupils 
does  not  have  to  be  a  good-looking  individual.  The  following 
description  gives  some  proof  of  this  fact : 

An  accurate  description  of  the  teacher  who  gave  me  the  best 
appreciation  and  understanding  of  history  will  have  to  be,  from 
the  standpoint  of  outward  appearances,  most  uncomplimentary, 
since  the  first  glance  at  her  did  not  make  you  feel  that  she  would 
have  anything  valuable  or  interesting  in  store  for  you.  She  was 
short  and  quite  fleshy,  and  there  was  no  sign  of  grace  in  any  of 
her  movements.  She  was  a  middle-aged  woman,  and  her  hair 
was  rather  gray,  pulled  back  tightly  from  her  face,  and  coiled 
into  a  tiny  knot  on  the  top  of  her  head.  Her  eyes  were  small, 
but  very  snappy  and  full  of  life,  her  nose  was  small,  but  pugged, 
and  her  mouth  unattractive  except  in  a  smile,  and  then  most 
charming.  Her  whole  face  smiled,  instead  of  just  her  mouth,  and 
one  always  felt  that  he  must  smile  back.  However,  if  on  first 
glance  your  impression  of  her  was  not  remarkable,  you  only  had 
to  sit  looking  at  her  for  a  few  moments  before  you  felt  how 
charming  and  fascinating  and  human  she  was.  With  a  personaHty 
such  as  hers,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  her  subject,  and  carefully 
planned  methods  for  making  the  course  most  valuable,  there  was 
scarcely  anything  missing  to  make  the  course  a  success  and  to  give 
the  pupils  an  understanding  and  a  new  conception  of  history.  And 
this  she  certainly  did,  at  least  in  my  case.  Her  methods  were 
simple,  not  seeming  to  differ  from  those  employed  by  many  other 
teachers  in  but  one  or  two  respects.  When  I  was  in  the  class,  of 
course,  I  was  not  looking  for  "methods,"  but  there  are  one  or 
two  things  which  stand  out  clearly  in  my  mind  that  differed  entirely 


2  70  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

from  methods  used  by  other  teachers.  In  the  first  place  she  gave 
us  each  week  a  typewritten  outline,  which  included  all  the  topics 
we  were  to  study  for  that  week.  This  was  in  a  definite  and  clear 
form,  and  beside  each  large  heading  were  given  references  in 
several  texts  which  we  were  given  access  to,  so  that  we  could 
turn  immediately  to  them  and  find  the  material  we  wanted.  These 
outlines  furnished  us  definite  material  for  the  preparation  of  the 
daily  lesson,  and  seemed  to  put  into  a  compact  form  the  essential 
topics,  and  helped  fix  them  in  mind.  I  believe  also  that  her  idea 
of  not  confining  the  reading  to  one  text  was  an  especially  good 
one,  and  one  not  employed  by  the  majority  of  history  teachers. 
There  were  occasional  outside  references,  but  usually  one  text  was 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  daily  lesson.  This  is  apt  to  be 
narrowing,  and  become  a  bore  to  the  pupil,  if  the  text  is  not 
unusually  good.  The  outlines  were  brought  to  class  each  day 
and  used  somewhat  as  guides  for  our  discussions,  although  we  were 
never  obliged  to  adhere  strictly  to  them.  The  recitations  were 
carried  on  in  the  form  of  informal  discussions,  sometimes  between 
teacher  and  pupil,  sometimes  between  pupils,  and  were  very  free 
and  always  remarkably  interesting.  By  clever  questions  and  chal- 
lenges she  led  one  on  until  he  was  all  stirred  up  over  a  question. 
You  never  felt  as  if  she  was  going  to  put  down  in  her  book  just 
what  your  answer  was  worth,  for  she  seldom  asked  a  question 
which  demanded  a  direct  answer,  but  rather  put  it  into  argumenta- 
tive form.  You  always  knew  that  she  appreciated  any  common  sense 
revealed  or  individual  thinking  on  your  part,  even  though  the  text 
did  not  state  the  same  facts.  I  believe  that  these  outlines  and  our 
informal  discussions,  combined  with  her  knowledge  of  United 
States  history  and  her  enthusiasm  displayed  in  the  classroom, 
were  all  methods  or  factors  which  gave  me  a  better  understanding 
and  appreciation  of  history  in  general. 

Some  other  encouraging  revelations  contained  in  the  accounts 
in  the  writer's  possession  are :  ( i )  A  teacher  does  not  have  to 
be  young  to  make  his  students  appreciate  history.  (2)  A 
history  teacher  does  not  have  to  be  easy  to  be  popular. 
(3)  The  lecture  system  can  be  made  a  success  in  high-school 
history  teaching.   (4)  Good  history  teaching  does  not  have  to  be 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      271 

spectacular.  (5)  The  power  to  make  the  fact  a  living  reality 
is  a  great  asset  to  a  history  teacher.  (6)  Students  enjoy  mak- 
ing maps,  reading  in  other  books,  keeping  notebooks,  writing 
papers,  and  similar  exercises.  The  following  statements  illus- 
trate almost  all  these  points : 

The  teacher  who  helped  me  most  to  an  appreciation  of  history 
was  an  elderly  woman  with  white  hair  and  a  dignified  bearing. 
When  a  Freshman  this  lady  had  terrified  me,  and  it  was  with  much 
trepidation  that  I  entered  her  room  for  class  work.  She  was 
assistant  principal  of  the  high  school,  and  so  was  necessarily  stern 
at  times.  I  thought  she  was  a  sort  of  an  ogre,  and  the  first 
time  I  remember  trying  to  recite  for  her  I  started  to  name  as 
many  presidents  as  I  could,  and  as  nearly  in  order  as  possible. 
I  started  with  Washington,  named  Adams  and  a  few  others,  and 
ended  up  by  naming  Washington  over  again.  She  had  me  so 
frightened  that  I  could  not  think.  However,  when  I  finished,  she 
looked  up  and  smiled — everybody  else  laughed  excepting  myself. 
She  seemed  to  know  that  I  was  frightened  for  she  put  her  glasses 
down  a  little  way  on  her  nose,  peered  out  over  them  at  me,  smiled 

and    said,    "How    do    you    spell    your    first    name.    Miss ?" 

I  was  thunderstruck.  What  was  she  going  to  do?  But  I  did 
manage  to  say  "V-i-o-l-e-t."  She  said,  "I  am  glad  you  don't  spell 
it  V-i-o-l-e-t-t-e ;  it  would  lessen  my  opinion  of  you."  Then  she 
chatted  on  a  little  about  names.  Of  course,  everybody  wondered 
what  she  was  doing.  She  wasn't  doing  a  thing,  but  making  us 
"at  home,"  but  we  didn't  know  it  then.  Soon  she  started  the 
history  study  again,  and  we  forgot  about  the  Kttle  discussion  for 
the  time.  That  afternoon  I  was  walking  down  the  hall.  She 
put  out  her  arm,  a  clean,  stiffly  starched  arm  it  was  too,  and 
caught  my  arm.  To  this  day  I  cannot  tell  what  she  said  to  me,  but 
I  do  know  that  ever  after  I  idolized  the  dignified,  orderly  woman. 
She  admired  a  boy  who  sold  papers  or  worked  in  some  other  way, 
and  said  so.  Also  she  admired  a  girl  who  helped  her  mother,  she 
said  that  too,  and  although  her  lessons  did  wander  from  the 
straight  and  narrow  path  of  just  history  at  times,  yet  she  got  as 
good  results  as  any  of  the  other  teachers  and,  besides,  made  the 
subject  pleasant  for  us. 


272  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

The  history  teacher  who  helped  me  most  to  an  appreciation  and 
understanding  of  history  had  a  pleasing  personality  which  seemed 
to  be  carried  through  the  subject  of  history  itself.  She  was  not  what 
one  would  call  good  looking,  but  had  an  attractive  way.  She  was 
for  the  most  part  of  an  even  temper,  but  could  be  stern  if 
necessary.  Her  way  of  taking  up  history  was  not  that  of  the 
old  type,  but  was  a  most  interesting  way.  She  went  over  much 
of  the  history  in  a  clear  way.  She  gave  us  topics  on  which  to 
take  notes  in  an  orderly  fashion  and  so  that  they  could  be  re- 
membered. Although  the  textbook  was  studied,  the  reading  in 
other  books  was  one  of  the  pleasant  features  of  this  course. 
Miss  L.  had  us  prepare  notebooks  and  maps.  What  made  the 
subject  of  most  pleasure  to  the  class  was  the  informal  way  in 
which  the  recitation  was  carried  on.  Informal  discussions  directed 
by  Miss  L.  did  much  to  make  the  history  clear.  Another  device 
she  used  was  the  giving  of  different  current  topics  by  various 
members  of  the  class.  Guided  by  this  wide-awake  teacher  we 
were  able  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  outside  world  as  well  as  with 
the  past  history.  Miss  L.  was  a  rather  sHght  young  person  of 
medium  height  with  light  hair  and  blue  eyes.  She  wore  her  hair 
parted  in  the  middle  and  slightly  rolled  on  both  sides  and  was 
always  very  neat  and  attractive  to  look  upon.  Her  light  blue  eyes 
were  generally  calm,  but  could  snap  and  flash  when  she  became  ex- 
cited. Miss  L.  talked  in  a  quiet  even  tone,  but  sometimes  when  care- 
less or  unruly  boys'  disturbed  the  class  her  tones  could  be  sharp  and 
clear  cut  to  make  the  offender  realize  his  misdemeanor.  She  was 
well  liked  by  both  fellow  teachers  and  her  students.  At  all 
class  parties  and  functions  it  was  always  Miss  L.  whom  the  boys 
and  girls  unanimously  chose  as  chaperon.  This  popularity  among 
the  students  was  not  because  Miss  L.  was  "easy"  in  classes.  She 
was  most  fair  in  all  examinations  and  classes  and  showed  no  favorit- 
ism or  partiality.  Her  popularity  was  due,  I  think,  to  her  pleasing 
personality,  her  friendhness  and  kindness  to  everyone,  and  her 
desire  to  help  wherever  and  whenever  she  could. 


The  teacher  who  helped  me  most  to  an  appreciation  of  history 
was  the  young  lady  who  taught  history  and  civics  in  the  high 
school.     She  was  very  ambitious   and   full   of  Ufe.     She  had  a 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      273 

pleasing  manner  and  a  sense  of  humor.  She  made  you  feel  an 
interest  in  the  subject  because  of  her  own  interest  in  it  and  the 
personal  interest  which  she  seemed  to  take  in  each  pupil.  She 
lectured  on  the  different  topics  and  gave  us  some  outside  reading  tc 
do.  We  had  a  notebook  in  which  we  kept  notes  on  the  lectures  and 
reports.  We  prepared  maps  to  illustrate  the  geographical  connections 
of  some  things.  Special  topics  were  assigned  to  each  student  to  re- 
port upon  to  the  class.  These  seemed  especially  to  interest  the  class. 
We  had  a  textbook,  but  it  was  so  condensed  that  it  was  almost  an  out- 
line, and  all  elaboration  of  the  facts  had  to  be  obtained  from  other 
sources.  This  book,  however,  gave  us  the  order  of  progression,  and  mate- 
rial gleaned  from  other  sources  seemed  more  profitable  and  interesting. 

The  teacher  who  helped  me  most  in  acquiring  an  appreciation 
of  history  was  a  woman  who  herself  was  thoroughly  alive  to  the 
subject.  She  had  studied  history  a  great  many  years  and  knew 
a  great  deal  about  it.  Consequently  she  made  the  class  very 
much  interested  in  it,  and  her  method  of  work  was,  I  suppose, 
very  much  like  others.  We  read  a  certain  number  of  pages, 
talked  them  over  in  class,  read  outside  references,  and  had  a  general 
discussion.  The  devices  which  she  used  were  discussions  upon  out- 
side readings ;  mapping  out  the  different  routes  of  armies ;  coloring 
printed  maps  to  show  gains  of  territory  or  losses  of  it ;  arguments 
or  debates  upon  certain  points  such  as  who  was  the  best  leader 
of  a  certain  army  and  why,  which  required  outside  reading ;  and 
various  articles  and  pictures  brought  in  by  the  teacher.  All  of  these 
devices  helped  to  bring  the  class  to  a  greater  appreciation  of  the 
subject,  and  I'm  sure  everyone  got  something  worth  while  out  of 
the  course,  whether  he  further  studied  history  or  not. 

The  history  teacher  who  helped  me  to  an  appreciation  and  under- 
standing of  history  was  a  man  who  was  thoroughly  absorbed  in 
his  subject.'  When  we  studied  historical  characters,  he  always  had 
a  rich  fund  of  details  (not  given  in  our  textbook)  to  make  the 
impression  of  the  character  lasting.  His  admiration  of  some  his- 
torical people  was  very  great,  as  frequently  expressed  by  such 
hearty  exclamations  as  "Oh,  how  I  would  like  to  have  known  the 
man  ! "  The  enthusiasm,  admiration,  and  reverence  with  which  he 
treated  biographies  of  great  men  made  them  living  people  to  his 
pupils.     I  Hked  his  treatment  of  events — we  were  made  to  see 


2  74  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

their  relationship  to  all  phases  of  life.  The  petty  details  of  war 
were  omitted,  only  such  parts  as  touched  significant  points  or  prob- 
lems were  studied.  We  were  led  to  criticize,  revise,  question,  and 
study  out  for  ourselves  important  topics.  The  devices  which  this 
instructor  used  to  help  us  to  grow  in  power  to  understand  and 
appreciate  history  were  varied.  Those  which  best  helped  me  were 
his  vivid  lectures  and  his  references  to  other  books.  Our  textbook 
merely  gave  a  broad  general  study  of  our  subject,  the  enrichment 
being  left  to  reference  books.  The  maps  which  we  made  twice  a 
week  fixed  facts  clearly  and  definitely.  We  used  notebooks  in 
which  we  wrote  in  topical  order  the  points  obtained  from  reference 
reading,  textbooks,  and  lectures. 

The  teacher  who  helped  me  most  to  an  appreciation  and  under- 
standing of  history  had  pleasing  manners ;  was  broad-minded,  well 
informed,  interested  in  the  subject  and  in  the  children,  fair,  and 
just,  and  expected  the  children  to  do  the  right  thing.  I  think 
his  method  was  a  combination  of  methods :  textbook,  problematic, 
topical,  lecture,  developmental.  The  assignment  was  good ;  interest 
was  aroused  in  the  work  to  be  done.  Sometimes  the  assignment 
was  in  the  form  of  questions  that  had  to  be  answered.  Reading 
in  addition  to  the  textbook  was  given,  special  topics  were  often 
given,  and  these  were  to  be  worked  up  and  reported  to  the  class. 
Maps  were  made  to  help  in  understanding  and  organizing  material. 
Outlines  were  worked  out,  not  merely  copied  and  learned.  Some- 
times the  teacher  lectured,  at  other  times  lectures  would  be  given 
on  special  topics  by  the  pupils.  There  was  an  attempt  to  correlate 
history  with  other  work.  The  recitation  was  not  a  time  for  mere 
memory  work  but  a  time  for  clearing  up  points  and  for  getting 
new  views  of  things. 

A  history  teacher  who  wishes  to  help  his  students  to  an  ap- 
preciation and  an  understanding  of  history  can  well  afford 
occasionally  to  examine  himself  in  the  light  of  the  foregoing 
descriptions.  He  will  find  in  them  an  ideal  worthy  of  attain- 
ment, a  standard  deserving  of  the  efforts  of  any  teacher  to 
attempt  to  measure  up  to,  and  an  indication  that  good  history 
teachers  are  much  appreciated  by  their  students. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      275 

The  History  Teacher's  Professional  Library^ 

The  three  chief  ways  for  a  history  teacher  to  keep  abreast 
of  the  new  movements  in  the  teaching  phase  of  his  subject 
are  (i)  to  attend  professional  gatherings  now  and  then; 
(2)  to  spend  an  occasional  summer  in  studying  the  problems 
relative  to  the  teaching  of  history  in  a  school  which  offers 
courses  along  this  line;  and  (3)  to  read  books,  magazines, 
and  reports  concerning  history  and  the  teaching  of  history  in 
the  high  school  and  elsewhere.  No  one  of  these  is  complete 
within  itself.  To  attain  the  most  worth-while  results  a  teacher 
must  supplement  any  one  of  them  with  the  other  two.  This, 
however,  is  an  ideal  which  all  will  not  be  able  to  attain. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  most  teachers  are  forced  to  adapt 
their  ambitions  along  the  line  of  professional  growth  to  a 
salary  which  is  too  often  but  little  above  a  living  wage,  their 
attendance  at  professional  gatherings  and  summer  schools 
must  be  very  sporadic.  On  account  of  this  fact  there  is  left 
but  one  avenue  through  which  to  attain  professional  better- 
ment. This  is  number  three  above,  which  does  not  seem 
entirely  beyond  the  financial  reach  of  the  lowest  salaried 
teacher.  Generally  speaking,  if  the  money  spent  in  attending 
two  or  three  professional  gatherings  or  one  summer  session 
were  put  in  books  on  the  teaching  of  history,  it  would  be 
sufficient  to  supply  one  with  all  the  material  of  any  great 
value  along  this  line.  When  a  professional  history  library 
has  once  been  brought  up  to  date  the  amount  required  to 
keep  it  thus  is  very  insignificant.  A  beginning  teacher  should 
supply  himself  at  his  earliest  opportunity  with  the  worth- 
while literature  on  the  teaching  of  his  subject.  This  done 
early  in  his  career  it  will  be  possible  for  him  subsequently  to 
keep  up  to  date  in  this  matter  and  at  the  same  time  occasion- 
ally to  attend  a  professional  gathering  or  a  summer  school. 

1  This  section  aims  to  be  practical  rather  than  complete.    It  supplements 
the  additional  reading  matter  listed  at  the  end  of  each  chapter. 


2  76  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Suppose  a  history  teacher  desires  to  purchase,  as  he  is  able, 
a  select  library  on  the  professional  phase  of  his  subject,  what 
ought  he  to  include  in  his  list?  In  terms  of  the  types  of 
material  a  working  library  on  the  teaching  of  history  should 
include  (i)  general  discussions  of  the  subject  of  history, 
its  purposes,  processes,  etc.;  (2)  books  treating  the  numerous 
teaching  phases  of  the  subject;  (3)  reports  of  committees; 
and  (4)  outlines  and  syllabuses.  A  careful  selection  would  limit 
the  number  of  books  in  the  first  of  these  classes  to  five,  all 
of  rather  recent  publication,  the  oldest  being  J.  W.  Allen's 
The  Place  of  History  in  Education}  Three  years  after  Allen's 
book,  The  New  History  by  Professor  James  Harvey  Robinson 
appeared,^  which  was  followed  three  years  later  by  The 
Purpose  of  History^  by  Professor  T.  J.  E.  Woodbridge,^  and 
Dean  Mathews's  The  Spiritual  Interpretation  of  History ^ 
The  most  recent  of  these  general  discussions  is  Teggart's 
The  Processes  of  History.^  Briefly  considering  these  titles  in 
reverse  order,  it  should  be  said  of  Professor  Teggart's  little 
volume  that  it  contains  interesting  considerations  of  the  geo- 
graphical and  the  human  factors  in  history.  The  entire 
discussion  is  an  attempt  'Ho  do  for  human  history  what 
biologists  are  engaged  in  doing  for  the  history  of  other  forms 
of  life."  It  is  heavy  reading  and  contains  little  that  will 
interest  a  beginner.  The  Spiritual  Interpretation  of  History 
is  the  outcome  of  six  lectures  delivered  by  the  author  at 
Harvard  University  in  the  fall  of  19 16.  The  first  two  lectures 
treat  of  the  limits  within  which  the  spiritual  interpretation 
of  history  is  possible,  and  the  spiritual  tendencies  in  history 
as  a  whole;  and  the  last  four  with  such  general  subjects  as 
the  substitution  of  moral  for  physical  control,  the  growing 
recognition  of  the  worth  of  the  individual,  the  transformation 

1  William  Blackwood  and  Sons,  London,  1909. 

2  The  Macmillan  Company,  191 2. 

^  Columbia  University  Press,  191 6.       • 
4  Harvard  University  Press,  1916. 
s  Yale  University  Press,  19 18. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      277 

of  right  into  justice,  and  the  spiritual  opportunity  in  a  period 
of  reconstruction.  Professor  Woodbridge's  book,  like  Dean 
Mathews's,  is  the  result  of  a  series  of  lectures,  in  this  case 
three,  delivered  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in  the 
spring  of  191 6.  The  subjects  of  these  lectures  are  "From 
History  to  Philosophy,"  "The  Pluralism  of  History,"  and 
"The  Continuity  of  History."  Philosophically  inclined  indi- 
viduals will  be  interested  in  what  Professor  Woodbridge  says 
on  these  subjects.  A  book  that  has  been  widely  read  is 
Professor  Robinson's  The  New  History.  For  a  popular  treat- 
ment of  the  newer  tendencies  in  writing  and  interpreting 
history  it  probably  has  no  equal.  The  chapters  on  "The 
New  History,"  "The  New  Allies  of  History,"  and  "History 
for  the  Common  Man"  are  especially  illuminating  and  will  be 
read  with  interest  by  a  neophyte  in  the  field  of  history  teach- 
ing. Allen's  The  Place  of  History  in  Education,  the  oldest  of 
the  books  in  this  group,  deals  with  such  subjects  as  history 
as  a  science,  the  educational  value  of  history,  and  the  point 
of  view  in  history.  The  work  as  a  whole  is  interesting  as 
well  as  easy  reading. 

Of  the  titles  comprising  the  second  class  of  books  mentioned 
above  there  are  probably  nine  that  should  be  mentioned  in  a 
limited  list.  Chronologically  considered,  the  first  of  these  is 
a  book  edited  by  G.  Stanley  Hall.^  It  consists  of  collections 
of  essays  by  a  number  of  scholars  and  for  the  present  time 
has  historical  rather  than  practical  value.  A  similar  state- 
ment can  be  made  of  B.  A.  Hinsdale's  book,  which  appeared 
a  decade  after  the  one  edited  by  Hall.^  The  fact,  however, 
that  Hinsdale's  volume  is  yet  on  the  market  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  it  is  still  used  by  some  teachers.  Inasmuch  as 
the  book  contains  considerable  material  of  a  general  nature, 
such  as  methods  of  teaching,  organization  of  facts,  etc.,  one 
might  expect  sustained  rather  than  temporary  interest  in  it. 

1  Methods  of  Teaching  History.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1883. 

2  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History.   D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1893. 


278  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Two  other  books  which  seem  to  have  more  historical  than 
practical  value  are  those  by  W.  H.  Mace^  and  H.  E.  Bourne.^ 
In  his  first  edition  Mace  presented  a  theory  of  organizing 
history  which  he  illustrated  with  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  The  19 14  edition  kept  all  the  old  material  and  added 
enough  new  to  place  it  almost  in  the  class  with  recent  publica- 
tions of  a  similar  character.  Bourne's  book  is  in  reality  the 
pioneer  in  the  field  of  teaching  history  in  the  elementary  and 
secondary  schools.  While  half  of  his  discussion  is  devoted 
to  an  out-of-date  organization  of  high-school  history,  the 
subjects  considered  in  the  other  half  are  those  yet  in  the 
foreground  of  the  thought  of  those  most  interested  in  better 
history  teaching  on  all  levels  of  instruction. 

The  five  remaining  books  in  group  two  have  been  published 
since  19 10.  In  the  order  of  their  appearance  they  are 
Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History  by  M.  W.  Keatinge,^  The 
Teaching  of  History  by  E.  C.  Hartwell,*  How  to  Teach 
American  History  by  J.  W.  Wayland,^  The  Teaching  of 
History  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools  by  Henry  John- 
son/*  and  History  in  the  Elementary  School  by  C.  N.  Kendall 
and  F.  E.  Stryker.^  Since  these  five  volumes  contain  the  most 
recent  discussions  of  history  and  the  teaching  of  history  in 
the  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  they  will  of  necessity 
be  the  first  books  to  be  considered  by  a  teacher,  a  librarian,  or 
a  high-school  principal  in  purchasing  an  up-to-date  professional 
history  library.^ 

1  Method  in  History.   Rand  McNally  &  Co.,  1897,  19 14. 

2  The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics,  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.,  1902, 1910. 
8  Adam  &  Charles  Black,  London,  1910. 

*  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  191 3. 

^  The  Macmillan  Company,  1914. 

6  The  Macmillan  Company,  191 5. 

■^  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1918. 

8  Two  other  books  on  special  phases  of  history  teaching  might  be  men- 
tioned in  this  connection.  They  are  C.  O.  Davis,  A  Guide  to  Methods 
and  Observation  in  Histoiy,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  1914;  and  Mabel 
Simpson,  Supervised  Study  in  History,  The  Macmillan  Company,  19 18. 


THE  HIGH- SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      279 

Since  1893  there  have  appeared  in  the  field  of  history  the 
reports  of  five  committees.  A  knowledge  of  each  of  these  is 
necessary  to  an  adequate  understanding  of  the  stages  through 
which  the  present  course  of  study  in  the  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  have  gone.  Chronologically  considered,  the 
first  of  the  five  is  the  report  to  the  famous  Committee  of  Ten^ 
of  the  subcommittee  on  "History,  Civil  Government,  and 
Political  Economy,"  in  which  one  finds  the  beginning  of  a 
great  deal  that  now  exists  in  elementary  and  secondary  his- 
tory. Soon  after  the  appearance  of  the  Committee  of  Ten's 
report  the  American  Historical  Association  became  interested 
in  the  subject  of  history  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 
As  a  result  of  this  interest  there  appeared  in  1898,  1908,  and 
191 1  the  reports  of  three  committees^  appointed  by  this 
association.  Inasmuch  as  the  report  of  the  Committee  of 
Five  is  based  on  a  partial  revision  of  the  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Seven,  the  two  should  be  considered  conjointly. 
Some  things  relating  to  the  teaching  of  history  have  never 
been  said  better  than  these  committees  said  them.  Further- 
more, when  one  includes  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Eight, 
it  is  the  whole  truth  to  say  that  most  of  the  history  taught 
in  the  secondary  schools  for  fifteen  years  following  1900  and 
in  the  elementary  schools  for  ten  years  following  1908  was 
that  recommended  by  these  committees.  Hence  the  neces- 
sity for  knowing  the  contents  of  these  reports,  if  one  desires 
a  historical  background  of  the  present-day  condition  of  history 
in  these  schools.  To  date,  the  reports  under  discussion  end 
where  they  began,  with  the  National  Education  Association. 
In  191 6,  through  one  of  its  committees,  this  association  issued 
a  report  on  The  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education} 
Since  this  report  leaped  into  favor  immediately  after  its 
publication,  and  since  the  program  proposed  therein  will  be 

1  American  Book  Company,  1894. 

2  The  Committees  of  Seven,  Eight,  and  Five.  The  Macmillan  Company 
published  the  first  and  the  last,  and  Scribner  the  other  one. 

8  Bulletin  (1916)  No.  28.  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C. 


28o  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

the  one  at  which  most  of  the  attacks  of  the  future  are  likely 
to  be  directed,  it  becomes  almost  a  professional  crime  for  a 
history  teacher  to  be  ignorant  of  its  contents. 

The  outlines  and  syllabuses  which  are  worth  a  history  teacher's 
consideration  may  be  classified  into  (i)  those  covering  the 
entire  field  of  high-school  history,  and  (2)  those  relating  to 
special  fields.  In  the  first  group  there  are  three,  two  of 
immediate  and  one  of  remote  value.  The  reader  will  recall 
the  fact  that  the  Committee  of  Seven  made  no  attempt  to 
outline  in  any  detail  the  fields  of  history  which  are  recom- 
mended for  the  high  school.  This  detailed  work  was  left  to  a 
committee  of  the  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association. 
The  report  of  this  committee^  was  published  in  190 1.  It  was 
then  and  still  remains  one  of  the  most  elaborate  history 
syllabuses  for  secondary  schools  in  existence.  For  those  who 
teach  the  traditional  four-year  high-school  course  consisting 
of  ancient,  medieval  and  modern,  English,  and  American 
history,  the  syllabus  still  has  much  value. 

There  are  two  syllabuses  issued  by  the  state  departments  of 
public  instruction  which  deserve  a  circulation  beyond  the  bound- 
aries of  the  states  issuing  them.^  Neither  of  these  syllabuses 
conforms  strictly  to  the  fields  proposed  by  the  Committee  of 
Seven.  The  chief  variation  from  this  report  in  both  of  them 
is  in  the  field  of  European  history,  in  which  they  adhere  more 
to  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Social  Studies,  for  which 
reason  they  are  valuable  to  the  teacher  who  desires  to  reorganize 
the  field  of  European  history  in  conformance  with  the  ideas 
expressed  in  the  report  of  this  latter  committee. 

In  the  field  of  ancient  history  there  are  but  few  outlines  and 
syllabuses  which  are  of  any  great  value.  In  fact,  the  number 
of  such  aids  seems  to  be  limited  to  three.    Of  these  Knowlton's 

1  A  History  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools.   D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

2  The  Teaching  of  Social  Studies  including  History,,  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  1916;  and  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools  — 
History  and  Cii'ics,  prepared  by  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York; 
reprinted  and  published  by  New  York  Education  Co.,  Albany,  N.Y. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      281 

Illustrated  Topics  in  Ancient  History  is  by  far  the  most  useful.^ 
The  introductory  material  in  Armstrong's  Syllabus  and  Note- 
book for  Ancient  History  is  of  considerable  value.^  Since 
neither  of  these  aids  is  expensive,  it  would  be  well  for  a  beginner 
to  have  access  to  both  of  them.  The  other  syllabus  in  the  latter 
half  of  this  field  is  Botsford's,  which  appeared  in  1915.^  While 
the  teacher  will  not  find  in  this  work  an  outline  which  he  can 
actually  use  in  his  classes,  he  will  secure  from  a  careful  perusal 
of  its  contents  a  multitude  of  suggestions  which  he  can  apply 
in  making  such  an  outline.  Furthermore,  if  the  teacher  desires 
a  guide  to  his  own  reading  in  the  field,  he  will  find  it  in  Bots- 
ford's  little  publication. 

Serviceable  syllabuses  and  outlines  are  a  little  more  plentiful 
in  medieval  and  modern  European  history  than  in  ancient  his- 
tory. The  latest  ones  to  appear  are  A  Syllabus  of  European 
History^  and  Syllabus  for  a  Course  in  Early  European  History.^ 
While  the  first  of  these  is  designed  to  accompany  a  particular 
text  in  the  field,  it  may,  however,  serve  as  a  useful  guide  to 
follow  in  using  any  textbook.  Mr.  Hoskins  does  not  base  his 
work  on  any  single  text,  but  makes  constant  reference  to  a 
number  in  the  field  of  ancient  and  medieval  history.  A  much 
older  syllabus  than  the  two  foregoing  is  Trenholme's,^  which, 
like  Williams's,  is  largely  based  on  a  single  text,  Robinson's 
History  of  Western  Europe.  In  spite  of  the  many  changes 
which  have  occurred  since  1907  in  the  traditional  high-school 
course  in  European  history,  Trenholme's  work  is  still  of  con- 
siderable value.  In  the  medieval  field  alone,  Armstrong  has  a 
syllabus  similar  to  his  Syllabus  and  Notebook  for  Ancient 
History  ^  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made.    The  general 

1  McKinley  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  191 3. 

2  Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co.,  1918. 

8  A  Syllabus  of  Roman  Histoiy.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

4  Williams.    American  Book  Company,  19 18. 

5  Hoskins.  The  Historical  Publishing  Co.,  Topeka,  Kansas,  1919. 

6  A  Syllabus  for  the  History  of  Western  Europe.  Ginn  and  Company,  191 7. 

7  A  Syllabus  and  Notebook  for  Medieval  History.  Atkinson,  Mentzer  & 
Co.,  1917. 


282  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

plan  of  these  two  works  is  the  same ;  in  fact,  they  contain 
a  very  considerable  amount  of  exactly  the  same  material.  In 
the.  field  of  strictly  modern  history  there  is  a  syllabus  by 
Professor  Hayes.^  Since  this  work  is  so  modem  in  its  selection  of 
topics,  it  should  be  of  great  assistance  to  those  interested  in  a 
new  selection  of  topics  in  modern  history.  Two  valuable  aids  in 
a  restricted  portion  of  the  field  are  Harding's  topical  outlines 
of  the  World  War  and  its  preliminaries.-  Inasmuch  as  after 
the  war  reorganization  of  high-school  history  will  remain  for 
some  time  an  important  problem,  these  outlines  should  be  of 
considerable  assistance  to  teachers  of  modern  history. 

In  the  field  of  English  history  proper  Trenholme's  An  Outline 
of  English  History,^  based  on  Cheyney's  Short  History  of  Eng- 
land, stands  almost  alone.  Closely  akin  to  it  in  the  American 
field  is  an  Outline  of  American  History  for  Use  in  High  Schools.^ 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  outline  is  based  on  a  single  text, 
it  has  value  regardless  of  the  textbook  used.  McKinley's  Illus- 
trated Topics  in  American  History  ^  is  similar  in  plan  to  Knowl- 
ton's  Illustrated  Topics  in  Ancient  History.  The  value  of  both 
of  these  aids  lies  in  the  vast  amount  of  varied  material  they 
contain.  A  Syllabus  of  American  History  by  R.  L.  Schuyler® 
contains  valuable  suggestions  on  a  topical  organization  of  the 
field  of  American  history.  To  this  brief  list  one  other  should  be 
added.  Taylor's  Outlines  of  American  Industrial  History''  is  a 
work  of  pronounced  value  to  a  high-school  history  teacher  who 
desires  to  emphasize  industrial  life  and  activities. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  the  discussion  a  few  remarks  on 
the  ways  and  means  of  keeping  up  to  the  minute  on  material 

1  A  Syllabus  of  Modem  History.    Columbia  University  Press,  1913. 

2  These  outlines  may  be  secured  in  a  convenient  form  in  Collected 
Materials  for  the  Study  of  the  War.    McKinley  Publishing  Co.,  1918. 

^  Ginn  and  Company,  191 8. 

*  Jonas  Viles.    Ginn  and  Company,  1915. 

®  McKinley  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1912. 

®  Columbia  University  Press,  191 5. 

■^  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan,  191 5. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  HISTORY  TEACHER      283 

relating  to  the  subject  one  teaches  seem  quite  apropos.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  there  are  two  practical  and  relatively  inex- 
pensive ways  of  doing  this.  One  of  these  is  to  rely  on  the 
Library  of  Congress.  For  instance,  if  a  history  teacher  should 
send  one  dollar  to  the  Library  of  Congress,  Card  Section,  with 
specifications  as  to  the  exact  kind  of  information  desired,  the 
information  would  come  periodically  in  the  form  of  cards  such 
as  one  finds  in  the  catalogue  of  any  library.  This  scheme 
assures  one  of  information  on  all  copyrighted  material.  An- 
other way  is  for  one  to  rely  on  magazines  such  as  The  His- 
torical Outlook^  and  The  School  Review?'  Each  issue  of  the 
former  of  these  contains  a  classified  list  of  books  on  history 
and  government  published  in  the  United  States  a  month  or  so 
before  the  issue  appears.  In  The  School  Review  there  has 
appeared  once  a  year  since  19 17  a  review  of  the  literature 
relative  to  history  and  the  teaching  of  history  which  appeared 
during  the  time  covered  by  the  article.  These  reviews  cover 
the  magazine  articles  as  well  as  books,  for  which  reason  they 
make  an  excellent  supplement  to  the  information  furnished  by 
the  Library  of  Congress  and  that  contained  in  The  Historical 
Outlook.  If  one  pursues  no  other  than  these  three  ways  of 
keeping  up  to  date  on  the  matter  of  history  and  the  teaching 
of  history  in  junior  and  senior  high  schools,  one  would  have  ' 
little  cause  to  worry  over  the  possible  existence  of  unknown 
material  of  any  great  value. 

ADDITIONAL  READING   MATTER 

Bird,  Grace  E.    "Pupils'  Estimates  of  Teachers,"  Journal  of  Educational   ^ 

Psychology,  VIII  (i9i7)>  35  ff- 
Book,  W.  F.    "The  High   School  Teacher  from  the  Pupil's  Point  of 

View,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  XII  (1905),  239  ff. 
BoYCE,  A.  C.   "  Qualities  of  Merit  in  Secondary  School  Teachers,"  Jour-  ^ 

nal  of  Educational  Psychology,  III  (1912),  144 ff. 

1  McKinley  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

2  School  of  Education,  The  University  of  Chicago. 


2  84  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

CoLViN,  S.  S.   "Problems  of  the  Novice  in  Teaching,"  Appendix  A,  in 

An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching.  The  Macmillan  Company, 

1917. 
Dawson,  Edgar.   "Preparation  of  the  High  School  Teacher  of  History," 
1  History    Teacher's  Magazine,   II    (1911),   197  ff.;   "Certification   of 

i  High  School  Teachers  of  History,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine^  III 

(1912),  200  ff. 
Edwards,  H.  W.   "Preparation  of  the  High  School  History  Teacher," 

History  Teacher's  Magazine,  II  (1910),  5  ff. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.    "The  Teacher's  Quahfications,"  chap,  xii  in  How  to 

Study  and  Teach  History.  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  1893,  1908. 
Keatinge,  M.  W.     "The  Teacher  of  History,"   chap  xi  in  Studies  in 
\  the  Teaching  of  History.   Adam  &  Charles  Black,  London,  1913. 

\  Knight,  G.  W.  "What  the  Teacher  of  American  History  should  Do  and 

Be,"  School  Review,  X  (1902),  208 ff. 
Lewis,  E.  S.   "The  Teaching  of  History  in  Maine,"  History   Teacher's 

Magazine,  V  (1914),  159  ff. 
Moses,  Cleda  Virginia.   "Why  High  School  Teachers  Fail,"  School  and 

Home  Education,  XXXIII  (1914),  166  ff, 
Paxson,   F.   L.   "  Certification    of   High    School   Teachers   of  History," 

History  Teacher's  Magazine,  IV  (1913),  169  ff, 
Trenholme,  N,  M.   "Preparation  for  the  High  School  Teacher  of  His- 
tory,"   Mississippi    Valley    Historical    Association    Proceedings,    TV 

(1910-1911),  284  ff, 
Wayland,  J.  W,    "The  Teacher's  Need  to  Know  Himself,"  chap,  xxx 

in  How  to  Teach  American  History.  The  Macmillan  Crsmpany,  1914. 
\  Williams,  O,  H.    "  The  History  Teachers  as  viewed  by  the  History 

Student,"  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  V  (1914),  260  ff. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  use  of,  ii8 

Acquisition  as  a  goal  in  permanent 
notebook  keeping,  149 

Activity,  teacher-pupil,  21,  24  £f. 

Adaptation,  8  f .,  29 

Adequate  tests,  25;  characteristics 
of,  163;  diagnostic  value  of ,^  174 

Agriculture,  73;  history  of,  loi 

Aims,  of  collateral  reading,  176  ff.; 
common  to  all  recitations,  10; 
controlling,  in  a  history  recitation, 
9ff.;  listed  by  Koos,  216;  what 
students  should  do  to  attain, 
178 

Algebra,  94,  164,  258 

Allen,  The  Place  of  History  in 
Education^  276 

American  Historical  Association, 
279 

American  history,  11,  71,  74,  75, 
86,  88,  98,  99,  loi,  102,  103,  105, 
136,  145,  152,  163,  170,  183,  190, 
217,  219,  224,  225,  226,  265,  266; 
general  method  of  teaching,  in 
junior  high  school,  99  f . ;  organi- 
zation of,  for  teaching  purposes, 
218 

American  Revolution,  9,  10,  19,  97, 
98 

Analyses,  text,  148 

Ancient  history,  106,  108,  166,  190, 
280;  general  method  of  pro- 
cedure in  teaching,  106  ff. 

Approach,  chronological,  103  ;  coun- 
ter-chronological, 103 

Arithmetic,  11,  loi,  164,  258 

Armstrong:  Syllabus  and  Notebook 
for  Ancient  History,  281 ;  Sylla- 
bus and  Notebook  for  Medieval 
History,  281 

Assignment,  6,  13,  27,  31 

Assignment  of  the  new  lesson,  14, 
15  f.,  29;  general  rules  to  follow 
in  making,  16;  how  to  make,  15; 


list  of  things  the  teacher  might 
do,  16;  when  to  make,  15 

Association:  American  Historical, 
279;  Middle  States  and  Mary- 
land History  Teachers',  97  f . ; 
Mississippi  Valley  Historical,  247 ; 
252;  National  Education,  279; 
New  England  History  Teachers', 
280 

Astronomy,  258 

Atlases,  182,  185 

Attainments,  215  f,;   standards  of, 

4,5 
Attention  must  be  kept  up,  27 
Austria-Hungary,  108 
Autocracy,  108 

Balkan  States,  108 

Bancroft,  George,  92 

Barnard,  A.  F.,  cited,  14  f. 

Barr,  A.  S.,  Diagnostic  Tests  in 
American  History,  167  n.,  174  n. 

Bera.rd,  History  of  the  United  States, 
quoted,  55 

Betts,  The  Recitation,  cited,  2 

Bibliographies,  121,  149 

Biographical  sketches,  148,  149 

Biography,  178,  182,  184 

Bird,  Grace  E.,  quoted,  255 

Blackboard  reproduction,  133,  134 

Blackboard  work,  133,  134;  assign- 
ment of,  14 

Bobbitt,  J.  F.,  quoted,  12  ;  What  the 
Schools  Teach  and  Might  Teach^ 
102 

Boston  Tea  Party,  9,  90 

Botany,  257,  258 

Bourne,  H.  E.,  The  Teaching  of 
History  and  Civics,  278 

Boyce,  A.  C,  Methods  for  Measur- 
ing Teachers'  Efficiency,  261 

Breasted,  J.  H.,  Ancient  Times,  133 

Briefs,  119,  121,  148;  training  in 
making,  iiQf. 


285 


286 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


Buckingham,  B.  R.,  cited,  171  n. 
Buellesfield,  Henry,  cited,  260 
Bulletin-board,  213 
Bunker  Hill,  9 
Business  law,  258 

Cartoons,  148,  213 

"  Certification     of     High-School 
Teachers  of  History,"  250 

Civics,  152,  258 

Civil  War,  19,  51 

Charlemagne,  crowning  of,  126  f. 

Charts,  2,  5,  7,  12,  13,  45,  46,  52, 
148 ;  to  use,  238  ff. ;  use  of,  6 

Chemistry,  2,  150,  258 

Cheyney,  E.  P.,  Short  History  of 
England,  282 

Chronicles,  178 

Chronological  outline,  148 

Church,  H.  V.,  quoted,  136  f. 

Class  discussions  as  a  way  of  test- 
ing collateral  reading,  192  f. 

Classroom  equipment,  12 

Clay,  Henry,  200-word  statement 
concerning,  225 

Clearness,  29;  how  to  attain,  8; 
need  of,  7 ;  quality  of,  7  f . 

Clippings,  213;  magazine,  148; 
newspaper,  148 

Coherence,  21;  principle  of,  S,  7, 
27,  29 

Collateral  reading,  27,  43 ;  abstracts 
of,  121;  amount  of,  to  be  re- 
quired in  each  course,  189  f.; 
how  to  assign,  190 ff.;  how  to 
check,  191  ff.;  guiding  principles 
to  use  in  selecting,  180 ff.;  kinds 
optional,  187  ff.;  kinds  required, 
187  f. ;  management  of,  187  ff. ;  so- 
called  valid  objections  to,  i78ff.; 
standards  to  apply  to  each  book, 
180  f. ;  what  students  must  do  to 
attain  worth-while  ends,  178; 
valid  aims  or  purposes  of, 
176  ff. 

College  Entrance  Examination 
Board,  155,  156,  160,  161 

College  lecture  method,  adaptation 
of,  to  high-school  students,  51 

Colonial  life,  an  outline  of,  in  de- 
tail, 238  ff. 

Commerce  and  industry,  72 


Commercial  development,  74 

Committee,  resolution  regarding 
topical  method,  71 

Committee  of  Eight,  279 

Committee  of  Seven,  98;  cited,  215, 
279, 280 

Committee  on  Social  Studies,  280 

Committee  of  Ten,  70,  279 

Comparative  statements,  121 

Comparisons,  148 

Compromise  of  1850,  225 

Concentration  as  a  factor  in  his- 
tory study,  35 

Concord,  9 

Conditions  necessary  to  a  good  his- 
tory recitation,  2  ff. 

Constitution,  ratification  of,  100 

Constitutional  government,  109 

Constitutional  growth,  72 

Correlation  of  history  and  English, 

i3Sf. 

Counter-chronological  method  of 
approach,  loi 

Crusades,  19 

Current  events:  determining  topics 
to  study,  202  f .,  204 ;  difficulties 
and  precautions,  211  ff.;  maga- 
zine to  use,  208  ff.;  place  to 
teach  and  time  to  devote  to, 
202 ;  possible  methods  of  pro- 
cedure (committee,  203  f.;  his- 
torical, 205  f . ;  informal,  206 ; 
notebook,  206;  report,  205;  re- 
ports-on-assigned-topics,  207  f.; 
textbook,  207) ;  teaching,  in  con- 
nection with  history,  199  f.; 
value  of,  200  f . 

Curriculum,  24;  place  of  history  in, 
252 

Dartmouth  College,  161 

Dates-events,  4,  1 1 ;  how  to  deter- 
mine a  list  of,  222 ;  how  to  use  a 
list  of,  223 ;  to  know  and  remem- 
ber, 222  ff. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  A  Guide  to  Methods 
and  Observation  in  History,  278  n. 

Davis,  S.  B.,  Exercises  in  United 
States  History,  170  f. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  82 

Demarcation  line  of  1763,  90  I 

Democracy,  108 


INDEX 


287 


Department,  English,  134,  135,  137, 

188 
Diagrams,  2,  7,  14,  27,  40,  45,  46, 

133,  148 
Diaries,^82,  184;  imaginary,  121; 

example  of  imaginary,  122  £f. 
Dictations,  special,  148 
Digest,  118,  194 
Direct  quotation,  training  in  taking, 

120 
Directions  to  pupils  for  the  study 

of  history  (Rickard's  list),  39 
Directions  and  rules  for  studying 

history,  36  ff. ;    in   Mason    City, 

Iowa,  high  school,  36  f. 
Discovery  and  exploration,  story  of 

the  period  of,  226  ff. 
Distractions,  created  by  the  teacher, 

3;  freedom  from,  2,  29 
Domestic  science,  2,  258 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  226,  231 
Drawings,  148,  258;  use  of,  6 
Drill  as  an  aim  in  a  recitation,  11 

Ecclesiastical  interference,  90 

Economic  theory  and  reform,  109 

Economics,  152,  258 

Editorials,  imaginary,  121;  example 
of,  127  ff. 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  82 

England,  108 ;  her  commercial  policy 
toward  the  colonies,  9 

Engleman,  J.  O.,  quoted,  256 

English,  116,  124,  125,  126,  134, 
208,  259;  Church,  on  solution  of 
the  problem,  136  f.;  Hobson, 
Elsie,  on  solution  of  the  problem, 
i3Sf.;  other  proposed  solutions, 
135  ff.;  problem  of,  in  written 
work  in  history,  134  ff. 

English  department.  See  Depart- 
ment 

English  history.    See  History 

English  literature,  136 

Enthusiasm  on  part  of  teacher,  3 

Erie  Canal,  6 

Europe,  109 

European  history.    See  History 

Evolution,  doctrine  of,  109 

Examination.  See  History  exami- 
nation 

Exercises,    238  ff. 


Expression  as  a  goal  in  permanent 
notebook  keeping,  149 

"f."  and  "ff.,"  meaning  and  use  of, 
142 

Fairy  tales,  178 

Final  examination,  exemption  from, 
159  f. 

Fling,  F.  M.,  Source  Problems  on 
the  French  Revolution,  cited,  81 

Fling,  F.  M.,  and  Caldwell,  H.  W., 
Studies  in  European  and  Amer- 
ican History,  quoted,  77,  78,  79 

Floor  talks,  14,  40 

Footnote  references,  the  technic  of 
making,  142  ff. 

Force,  29;  quality  of,  7,  8 

Foreign  relations,  72,  74 

Forms  of  the  history  recitation,  26  f. 

Foster,  Herbert,  quoted,  161 

France,  108 

French  and  Indian  Wars,  17,  100 

French  Revolution,  19,  51,  191 

Funnel  method,  50 

Garth,  T.  R.,  cited,  204 
Gathany,  J.  M.,  quoted,  201 ;  cited, 

206,  207,  208 
Geography,  253,  258 
German,  94,  237,  258 
Germany,  108 
Gold,  H.  H.,  cited,  80,  147 
Goodrich,   C.   A.,   History   of   the 

United  States,  quoted,  53 
Gradation,  problem  of,  97 
Graduates,  high-school,  why  they 

fail  to  appreciate  history,  264  f.; 

why  they  like  history,  265  ff. 
Graphs,  14,  46,  100,  148 
Greek  history.    See  History 
Guidance  outline,  118;  an  example 

of,  62 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing History,  277 

Harding,  S.  B.,  A  Teacher's  Manual, 
etc.,  quoted,  220 

Harlan,  C.  L.,  Test  of  Information 
in  American  History,  167,  169 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  identified,  226 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Studies  in  American 
Education,  cited,  69;  quoted,  70 


288 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


Hartwell,  E.  C,  The  Teaching  of 
History,  278 

Hayes,  A  Syllabus  of  Modern  His- 
tory, 282 

Herodotus,  79 

High-school  history,  supervised 
study  in,  42  ff. 

High-school  history  instruction,  ob- 
jection to  use  of  lecture  method 
in,  so 

High-school  history  teacher.  See 
History  teacher 

High-school  history  teaching,  what 
it  means,  10  f. 

High-school  students,  adaptation  of 
college  lecture  method  to,  51 ; 
descriptions  of  history  teachers, 
3f.,  264  ff. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  How  to  Study  and 
Teach  History,  277 

Historical  fiction,  182,  185,  192; 
how  to  check  when  read,  196 

Historical  notes,  use  to  be  made 
of,  118 

Historical  note-taking.  See  Note- 
taking 

Historical  novels,  178 

Historical  Outlook,  283 

Historical  sense,  80 

History:  American,  11,  71,  74,  75, 
86,  98,  99,  loi,  102,  103,  105,  136, 
14s,  152,  163,  170,  183,  190,  217, 
219,  224,  225,  226,  26S,  266; 
ancient,  106,  108,  166,  190,  280; 
directions  to  pupils  for  the  study 
of,  39  f.;  English,  124,  136,  152, 
190;  European,  73,  74,  98,  loi, 
107,  185,  251,  280,  281;  Greek, 
io3»  137,  iSi;  medieval,  107,  108, 
190;  modern,  107,  108,  152,  190; 
multiplication  tables  of,  11; 
Roman,  106,  124;  teaching  pupils 
to  study,  31  ff. 

History  examination,  adverse  criti- 
cism of,  155;  attempt  to  make 
it  other  than  a  mere  test  of 
memory,  157  f.;  justification  of, 
155;  meaning  of,  154  f.;  should 
test  ability  to  do  and  to  reason, 
157 

History  lesson,  what  pupils  do  in 
preparing,  34;   specific  things  a 


teacher  may  do  in  assigning,  16; 
how  to  study,  41;  study  plan 
for,  40 

History  question,  22  ff.;  essential 
qualities  of  a  good,  22;  kind  of, 
24;  number  to  ask  during  a 
45-minute  period,  22  ff. 

History  reading  card,  195;  use  of, 
196 

History  recitation,  i  ff. ;  attaining 
coherence,  proportion,  and  unity 
in,  5  f . ;  controlling  aims  of,  9  ff . ; 
description  of  an  actual,  7 ;  direc- 
tions for  conducting,  25  f.;  direc- 
tions for  observing,  27  ff.;  forms 
or  types  of,  16  ff.;  fundamental 
qualities  of,  7  ff . ;  governing  prin- 
ciples of,  5  ff . ;  management  of, 
12  ff.;  standards  for  judging, 
27  ff.;  suggestions  for  conducting, 
25  ff. 

History-recitation  score  card,  29 

History  study,  directions  for,  45; 
effective  factors  in,  35  f.;  by 
high-school  pupils,  31,  33;  list 
of  questions  relating  to,  31  f. 

History  teacher,  carefully  planned 
work  on  part  of,  4;  detail  he 
needs  to  know,  4f.;  enthusiasm 
and  interest  on  the  part  of,  3 ; 
principle  of  guidance  for,  12; 
questioning  activity  of,  23  ;  some- 
times the  chief  distraction,  3.  See 
Teacher 

Hobson,  Elsie,  quoted,  135  f. 

Homer,  79 

Hoskins,  H.  L.,  Syllabus  for  a 
Course  in  Early  European  His- 
tory, 281 

House  of  Representatives,  20,  225 

"lb.,"  "ibid.,"  "id.,"  meaning  and 
use  of,  143 

Illinois,  teaching  of  history  in,  258 

Illustrative  material,  27,  238  ff. 

Inadequate  tests,  character  of,  163 

Indefiniteness,  10 

Indians,  Iroquois,  226 

Individual  recitation,  17,  19  f.,  21 

Industrial  progress,  74 

Information  outline,  118;  an  ex- 
ample of,  6of. 


INDEX 


289 


Interest,  27;  devices  for  arousing, 
253 ;  on  part  of  teacher,  3 

Interpretation  of  source  material, 
43 

J.  Sterling  Morton  High  School, 
correlation  of  history  and  Eng- 
lish literature  in,  136  f. 

Johnson,  Henry,  cited,  157;  Teach- 
ing of  History  in  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools,  95,  278;  types 
of  collateral  reading  material  sug- 
gested by,  181  f. 

Johnson,  N.  C,  cited,  32 

Johnson,  President,  92 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  identified, 
226 

Josselyn,  Homer,  cited,  257 

Judd,  C.  H.,  cited,  134 ;  Psychology 
of  High-School  Subjects,  35 ; 
quoted,  95  f . 

Julia  Richmond  High  School,  157 

Junior  high  school,  example  of  the 
problem-solving  method  in,  86  f . ; 
method  of  procedure  in  teaching 
American  history  in,  99  ff . ;  modes 
of  procedure  to  use  in  teaching 
history  in,  65  f.;  organization  of 
American  history  for  teaching 
purposes  in,  218  f.;  use  of  text- 
book in  first  year  of,  65 ;  use  of 
textbook  in  second  year  of,  65  f . ; 
use  of  textbook  in  third  year  of, 
66 

Kansas,  status  of  teaching  history 

in,  257 
Keatinge,  M.  W.,  Studies  in   the 

Teaching  of  History,  278 
Kendall,  C.  N.,  and  Stryker,  F.  E., 

History  in  the  Elementary  School, 

278 
Kentucky,  225 
Kirk,  Annie  B.,  cited,  205 
Kitson,  H.  D.,  How  to  use  your 

Mind,  35,  118 
Knowlton,  D.  C,  Illustrated  Topics 

in  Ancient  History,  281 
Koos,    L,    v.,    quoted,    190,    191 ; 

Administration     of     Secondary - 

School  Units,  216 


Labor  systems,  loi 

Laboratory  method.  See  Source 
method 

Latin,  94,  257,  258,  259 

Lecture  method,  16  ff.;  attitude  the 
teacher  should  take  toward,  52; 
can  be  made  to  succeed  in  high 
school,  272  f.;  modes  of  utilizing, 
in  high  school,  50 ff.;  objection^- 
to  use  of,  in  high-school,  50; 
should  not  be  the  method,  52 ;  as 
used  in  1839  in  Oneida  Institute, 
49;  used  to  serve  specific  pur- 
poses, SI 

Lectures,  148;  taking  notes  on,  120 

Legends,  178 

Lesson,  how  to  get  a,  37 

Lesson  planning,  outline  in  detail 
of  colonial  life,  238  ff. 

Letters,  178,  182,  184;  examples  of 
imaginary,  130  ff. 

Lewis,  E.  E.,  quoted,  23 

Lewis,  E.  S.,  cited,  258 

Lexington,   9 

Libby,  Walter,  cited,  19  n. 

Library,  history  teacher's  profes- 
sional, 2  75ff.;  small  classified, 
183  ff. ;  twelve-book,  in  European 
history  since  1648,  186;  types  of 
books  to  be  found  in  a  high- 
school  history,  182  ;  types  of  ma- 
terial in  a  teaching  o^f  history,  2  76 

Library  of  Congress,  283 

Literature,  72 

"Loc.  cit.,"  meaning  and  use  of, 

143 
Long  story.    See  Overview 

McCollum,  D.  F.,  "A  Scale  in 
United  States  History,"  164  ff.; 
adverse  criticism  of  scale,  167 

McCormick,  Cyrus,  identified,  226 

Mace,  W.  H.,  Method  in  History, 
278 

McKinley,  A.  E.,  Illustrated  Topics 
in  American  History,  282 

Magazines,  2,  117,  178,  208;  cri- 
teria for  judging,  208;  points  in 
favor  of  monthly,  209  f. ;  points 
in  favor  of  weekly,  209;  study 
of,  210  f.;  the  one  to  use  in 
current-events  study,  208  ff. 


290 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


Magna  Charta,  82 

Maine,  teaching  of  history  in,  258 

Management,  general,  27;  principle 

of  scientific,  12;  technic  of,  29; 

technic  of  history  recitation,  12  f. ; 

two  examples  of  good  recitation, 

13  ff. 
Mann,  Horace,  226 
Manual  training,  2 
Maps,  2,  5,  12,  14,  27,  45,  46,  52; 

directions     for     making,      221; 

sketching  of,  40;  to  use,  238  ff.; 

use  of,  6;  value  and  importance 

of  map  work,  220 
Maps  to  make,  5,  11,  219  ff.,  238  ff.; 

in  American  history,  219  f. 
Mary    C.   Wheeler    School,    corre- 
lation of  history  and  English  in, 

135 

Mason  City  High  School,  36 

Massachusetts,  75 

Mathematics,  94,  257,  259 

Mathews,  Shailer,  The  Spiritual 
Interpretation  of  History,  276 

Medieval  and  modern  history,  gen- 
eral method  of  procedure  in 
teaching,  107  ff.  See  History 

Memoirs,  178 

Memoriter  system,  53 

Memory  questions,  19,  24 

Merit,  Boyce's  qualities  of,  262 

Middle  colonies,  104 

Middle  States  and  Maryland  His- 
tory Teachers'  Association,  97  f. 

Middle  West,  50 

Missouri  Compromise,  225 

Models,  2 

Monro,  Kate,  cited,  137 

Morehouse,  Frances,  cited,  i9n.,  51 

Mowry,  W.  A.,  quoted,  179 

Myths,  178 

National  Education  Association,  279 

Nationality,  rise  of,  109 

Natural  science,  95 

Navigation  acts,  90 

New    England    History    Teachers' 

Association,  280 
New  Jersey,  Department  of  Public 

Instruction,  85 
New  lesson,  6,  26;  assignment  of 

the,  29 


Newspapers,  178;  special  study  of, 
211 

New  York,  6,  75 

North  America,   219 

North  Central  Association",  189,  190 

North  Carolina,  277 

Notebook,  permanent,  benefits  of, 
147  f . ;  definition  of,  148 ;  evils 
connected  with  use  of,  146  f.; 
form  of,  149  f . ;  instructions  rela- 
tive to  making,  150;  loose-leaf, 
150;  problem  of  grading,  152  f.; 
threefold  purpose  underlying, 
149;  types  of  material  to  appear 
in,  148  f. 

Notes,  on  collateral  reading,  148; 
on  lectures  and  reports,  148 ;  pur- 
poses and  uses  of,  117  f. 

Note-taking,  practical  value  of, 
117;  purposes  of,  118;  technic 
of,  118  f.;  training  in,  116  ff. 

Objectives,  215  f. 

Observation  work,  reports  on,  253 

Oneida  Institute,  use  of  lecture 
method  in,  49 

"Op.  cit.,"  meaning  and  use  of,  143 

Oral  quizzes  as  a  method  of  test- 
ing collateral  reading,  192  f. 

Oral  reports  as  a  means  of  check- 
ing collateral  reading,  192 

Oral  summary,  40 

Ordinance  of  1787,  82 

Organization,  general,  of  American 
history,  2i8f.;  prerequisites  of 
a  good,  2i8f.;  for  teaching  pur- 
poses, 217  ff. 

Osgood,  Ellen,  quoted,  158 

Outline  maps,  45 

Outlines,  examples  of,  60  f.;  guid- 
ance, 119,  120,  148;  information, 
119,  120,  148;  training  in  making, 
119 

Overview,  11,  226;  of  the  period  of 
discovery  and  exploration,  226  ff. 

P.  and  pp.,  when  to  use,  142 
Parallel  source  study,  benefits  de- 
rived from,  81  f. 
Parallel  texts,  182,  183 
Paraphrasing,  training  in,  120 
Parker,  S.  C,  dted,  86  n. 


INDEX 


291 


Pennsylvania,  75 

Pericles,  Age  of,  73 

Periodicals,  monthly  and  weekly, 
things  in  favor  of  each  as  a 
basis  for  teaching  current  events, 
209  f. 

Personages,  historical,  to  know  and 
identify,  223  ff.,  238  ff.;  long  and 
short  list  of,  223;  how  to  use  a 
long  and  a  short  list  of,  224  f. 

Personality,  teacher's,  3 

Physical  geography,  258 

Physics,  2,  94,  ISO,  181,  257,  258 

Physiography,  258 

Pictures,  2,  5,  7,  13,  27,  45,  46,  52, 
148,  253 

Planning  a  course,  ten  things  in- 
volved in,  214  f. 

Plans,  148 

Plattsburg  Academy,  use  of  text- 
book method  in,  53 

Poetry,  historical,  182,  185 

Political  history,  74 

Practice  teaching,  253  f.;  results  of, 

253 
Preliminary  questions,  14 
PreHminary  survey  as  a  factor  in 
history  study,  35 
/^reparation,  ideal  for  the  teacher,  4 
Y Preparing   a    history   lesson,   what 
\  pupils  do  in,  34 
Presentation,  method  of,  9 
Problem  method,  82  ff.,  84,  85,  92 ; 
advantages  of,  84  f . ;  examples  of, 
86  ff. ;    outlining  a   course   based 
on,  85;  restricted  form  of,  92; 
what  it  is,  83 
Procedure,  general  method  of,  in 
American  history,  99  ff . ;  in  an- 
cient history,  106  f.;  in  medieval 
and  modern  history,  107  f. 
Progress  within  the  subject  of  his- 
tory,   94  ff . ;    attaining,    through 
general  and  special  methods  of 
procedure,  99  ff . ;  chief  difficulties 
connected  with,  96  f. ;  chief  points 
to  be  observed  by  the  teacher, 
105  f.;  Judd's  proposed  solution 
of  the  problem  of,  95  f . ;  nature 
:  of    the    problem,    94;    securing, 

f  year  by  year,  iioff.;  two  ways 

^  of  securing,  ii4f. 


Proportion,  principle  of,  6,  27,  29 
Pupil-activity,  25 

Qualities,  fundamental,  of  a  teach- 
ing exercise,  7;  relative  impor- 
tance of  those  which  make  an 
effective  teacher,  262  f. 

Questions,  direct,  26;  double,  26; 
list  to  determine  study-habits  of 
pupils,  31  f. ;  memory,  26 ;  pivotal, 
238  ff.;  quality  of,  29;  quiz,  14, 
40;  thought,  26;  triple,  26 

Quizzes,  oral,  as  a  mode  of  testing 
collateral  reading,  192  f. 

Recitation,  essentials  to  a  goodAflu^, 
individual,  17,  19  f.,  46;  revi&w 
and  drill,  18  f.;  socialized,  17, 
20  f.;  study,  18;  test,  17;  text- 
book, i7f.;  topical,  17! 

Reference  as  a  goal  in  permanent 
notebook  keeping,  149 

Reference  books,  12,  45,  117 

Reference  lists,  148 

Reformation,  19,  51 

Reminiscences,  178,  182,  184 

Reports,  148;  oral,  as  a  mode  of 
testing  collateral  reading,  191 ; 
written,  as  a  means  of  testing 
collateral  reading,  192,  193 

Reprints,  79 

Review,  6,  13,  26,  29,  64;  how  to 
make  valuable,  159;  and  drill 
recitation,  17,  18 

Revolutionary  War,  89,  115 

Rickard,  G.E.,  cited,  33, 34 ;  quoted, 

43  f. 
Robinson,  J.  H.,  The  New  History, 

276 
Rochester  Collegiate  Institute,  54 
Roman  Empire,  73 
Roman  history.    See  History 
Rote  work,  53;  modified  form  of, 

54 
Rules  for  study,  36  ff. 
Russell,  W.  F.,  quoted,  49,  S3,  54 
Russia,  108 

Sackett,  L.  W.,  "A  Scale  in  Ancient 
History,"  166  f.;  criticism  of  his 
scale,  167 

Sayre,  E.  R.,  quoted,  258 


292 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


School  Review,  283 

Schuyler,  R.  L.,  A  Syllabus  of 
American  History,  282 

Science,  258;  general,  150;  natural; 
109 

Secondary  schools,  textbook  method 
in,  48  f . 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  87 

Senate,  20 

Senior  high  school,  examples  of 
the  problem-solving  method  in, 
88  ff,;  general  method  of  pro- 
cedure in  teaching  history  in, 
loiff.;  how  to  use  textbook  in 
first  year  of,  66  f . ;  how  to  use 
textbook  in  second  and  third 
years  of,  67 ;  modes  of  procedure 
to  use  in  teaching  history  in,  66  f . ; 
outline  of  progressive  require- 
ments in,  iioff.;  tabular  view  of 
textbooks  in  American  history 
for,  23s 

Seward,  S.  S.,  Note-Taking,  118 

Short  story.    See  Overview 

Short  themes,  121;  examples  of, 
124  f.;  topics  in  Greek  history  to 
use  for,  137 

Simpson,  Mabel,  Supervised  Study 
in  History,  278  n. 

Sioux  City,  153,  160;  instructions 
to  high-school  students,  150  ff. 

Sketch,  13;  use  of,  6 

Sketch  map,  7 

Slater,  J.  R.,  Freshman  Rhetoric, 
118 

Social  development,  72 

Social  progress,  74,  100 

Social  Studies,  Committee  on,  280 

Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Edu- 
cation, 279 

Socialism,  108 

Socialistic  movement,  109 

Socialized  recitation,  17;  descrip- 
tion of  a  procedure  in,  20  f. 

Source  books,  79;  lists  of,  79f.  n., 
81  n. 

Source  extracts,  32 

Source  material,  238  ff.;  use  of, 
252 

Source  method,  46,  76  ff.,  82 ;  ad- 
vantages, 78  f . ;  ends  to  attain 
in  using,  80;  how  to  use,  80  f.; 


steps  in  the  application  of,  77; 

testimonials  as  to  success  of,  in 

Nebraska,  77  ff. 
Source  readings,  ends  to  attain  in 

using,  80 
Sources,  attitude  for  the  teacher  to 

take  toward,  82;  study  of,  71 
Southern  colonies,  104 
Special  methods  of  procedure:  lec- 
ture,    48  ff . ;      problem,     82  ff . ; 

source,    76  ff.;    textbook,    52  ff.; 

topical,  69  ff. 
Special    report,    12  f.,    18;    taking 

notes  on,  120 
Stamp  Act,  90 
Stamp  Act  Congress,  9 
Standardized    tests,    steps    in    the 

construction  of,  172  f.;  what  they 

should  test,  172 
Standards  of  attainment,  4,  12 
Starch,  Daniel,  American  History 

Test — Series  A,  168 
Steeper,  H.  T.,  cited,  257 
Stenographic  reports,  25 
Stevens,  Romiett,  cited,  23,  24,  25 
Study  helps  used  in  The  University 

of  Chicago  High  School,  38  f. 
Study  recitation,  17,  18 
Studying    history,    directions    and 

rules  for,  36  ff .,  46 ;  methods  used 

by  pupils  in,  32  f. 
Sugar  Act  of  1764,  90 
Summaries,  116,  119,  121,  148,  194; 

training  in  the  making  of,  119  f. 
Summary,  6,  7,  13,  14,  26,  29,  74, 

118 
Supervised  study,  aim  of,  42 ;  list 

of  general  plans  for  administer- 
ing, 46  f . 
Supervised  study  in  history,  42  ff . ; 

aims   set    up    by    Rickard,    43 ; 

method    of   procedure    used    by 

Rickard,  43  f . ;  technic  of,  44  ff . 
Supplementary  reading,  7 
Synopses,  116,  118 

Tables,  statistical,  148 
Tabulations,  43,  148 
Taft,  L.  E.,  cited,  24,  25 
Taylor,  R.  G., 'Outlines  of  American 

Industrial  History,  282 
Teacher-activity,  24,  25,  29 


INDEX 


293 


Teachers,  causes  of  failure  among, 
260  f.;  qualities  which  make  ef- 
fective, 262  f. 

Teachers,  high-school  history,  aca- 
demic equipment  of,  246  f . ;  how 
they  may  keep  up  to  date  on 
material,  282  f.;  measuring  the 
efficiency  of,  259  ff.;  mental  and 
temperamental  equipment  of, 
254  ff,;  methods  of,  as  seen  by 
their  students,  267  ff.;  need  not 
be  young  or  easy  to  make  pupils 
appreciate  history,  270  f.;  pro- 
fessional equipment  and  library, 
249  f.,  275  ff,;  pupil's  estimates 
of,  255;  quahties  which  make  a 
strong  appeal  to  students,  256; 
subjects  they  teach,  257  ff.;  ways 
to  keep  abreast  of  new  move- 
ments, 275 

Teaching,  meaning  of,  10  f. 

Teaching  of  history,  list  of  topics 
for  a  course  in,  252  f. 

Teaching  how  to  study,  psychology 
as  an  aid  to,  35  ff,;  threefold  task 
of  the  teacher  in,  34  f , 

Teggart,  F,  J,,  The  Processes  of 
History,  276 

Term  paper,  139  ff , ;  directions  for 
the  preparation  of,  139  ff . ;  steps 
in  the  preparation  of,  112  f.; 
suitable  subjects  for,  145 

Term  reports,  149 

Test  recitation,  17 

Testing,  as  an  aim  in  the  recitation, 
10;  collateral  reading,  194;  habits 
of  study,  10 

Tests  in  history,  adequate,  161  f., 
163;  Davis's,  170;  Harlan's, 
170  f.;  inadequate,  164  ff.;  Mc- 
Collum's,  164  f.;  Sackett's,  166  f.; 
standardized,  164  ff. 

Textbook  in  history,  analysis  of, 
234;  description  of  a  method  of 
using,  60  ff . ;  example  of  a  method 
of  using,  63  f , ;  gradation  in  the 
modes  of  procedure  in  using,  58  f,; 
65  ff . ;  how  to  study  a  lesson 
based  on,  41 ;  Johnson's  three 
modes  of  procedure  in  using,  58  f , ; 
legitimate  claims  for,  55  f.;  prob- 
lems pertaining   to   use   of,  64; 


tabular  view  of,  in  American  his- 
tory, 235;  unavoidable  defects 
in,  57  f.;  use  of,  252 

Textbook  method,  48,  52  ff.,  69,  71, 
75,  76;  meaning  of,  in  original 
form,  52;  memoriter-like  use  of, 
53;  modes  of  procedure  in  the 
use  of,  58  ff. 

Textbook  recitation,  17,  18 

Themes,  long,  148;  short,  148 

Thucydides,  79 

Topical  method,  69 ff.;  advantages 
claimed  for,  72!;  as  advocated 
by  Hart  in  1887,  70;  favored  in 
1892  by  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
71 ;  forms  of,  73  f.;  list  of  topics 
to  use,  75 ;  progressive  use  of,  74 

Topics,  for  a  course  in  the  teaching 
of  history,  252  f,;  for  special  re- 
ports, 238  ff,;  for  term  papers, 
145;  to  use  in  American  history, 

75 

Townshend  acts,  90 

Translations,  79 

Trenholme,  N.  E.,  An  Outline  of 
English  History,  282 ;  A  Syllabus 
for  the  History  of  Western  Eu- 
rope, 281 

Troy  Female  Academy,  use  of  text- 
book method  in,  54 

Tuell,  Harriet  E.,  The  Study  of 
Nations,  108  n. 

United  States,  6,  86,  loi,  219;  his- 
tory of,  50,  72,  73,  74,  83,  164, 
172,  173 

Unity,  21 ;  how  to  attain,  in  a  his- 
tory recitation,  5;  principle  of, 
5,  27,  133 

University  of  Texas,  165 

Van  Wagenen,  M.  J.,  American  His- 
tory Scales,  167  n.,  714  n. 

View,  tabular,  of  textbooks  in 
American  history,  235;  cross- 
section,  of  colonial  life,  237  ff. 

Viles,  Jonas,  Outline  of  American 
History  for  Use  in  High  Schools, 
282 

Virginia,  73 

Voluntary  discussion,  27 


294 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 


Wayland,  J.  W.,  How  to  teach 
American  History,  278 

West,  W.  M.,  Ancient  World,  134 

Whipple,  G.  M.,  How  to  Study 
Effectively,  35 

Whitlow,  C.  M.,  cited,  152 

Williams,  A  Syllabus  of  European 
History,  281 ;  cited,  267 

Woodbridge,  T.  J.  E.,  The  Purpose 
of  History,  276 

Word  study,  67  f. 

Work,  carefully  planned,  4;  care- 
fully prepared,  4 


World  War,  108,  199,  282 

Writs  of  Assistance,  90 

Written  work,  118,  120,  121,  134; 
concrete  examples  of,  122  ff.;  in 
high-school  history,  116  ff.;  as  a 
means  of  testing  collateral  read- 
ing, 193;  possibilities  of,  253; 
problem  of  English  in,  134 ff.; 
problem  of  grading,  152  f.;  types 
of,  121  ff. 

Zoology,  258 


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